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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">2310</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title specific-use="original" xml:lang="es">Universitas Medica</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher" xml:lang="es">Univ. Med.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0041-9095</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2011-0839</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Pontificia Universidad Javeriana</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>
<country>Colombia</country>
<email>revistascientificasjaveriana@gmail.com</email>
</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="art-access-id" specific-use="pmc">231072191007</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed63-4.cori</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Revisión de Tema</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es">Actualidad en corioamnionitis: una mirada desde el microscopio</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Update on Chorioamnionitis: A Look from the Microscope</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-7441-7832</contrib-id>
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Caicedo Marmolejo</surname>
<given-names>Beatriz Elena</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7147-425X</contrib-id>
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Olaya Contreras</surname>
<given-names>Mercedes</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corresp1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
<email>olaya.m@javeriana.edu.co</email>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Patología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Pontificia Universidad Javeriana</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Patología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Pontificia Universidad Javeriana</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="corresp1"><sup>a</sup> Autora de correspondencia: <email>olaya.m@javeriana.edu.co</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
<season>Octubre-Diciembre</season>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>63</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<history>
<date date-type="received" publication-format="dd mes yyyy">
<day>13</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted" publication-format="dd mes yyyy">
<day>05</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<ali:free_to_read/>
<license xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<ali:license_ref>https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ali:license_ref>
<license-p>Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 Internacional.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>La corioamnionitis se ha relacionado con desenlaces desfavorables en el periodo prenatal y neonatal (abortos, parto pretérmino, sepsis neonatal, entre otros), además de implicaciones a largo plazo en la infancia, como alteraciones en el coeficiente intelectual. Por esta razón, es de vital importancia el diagnóstico histopatológico oportuno. En este artículo se revisa el abordaje histopatológico de la corioamnionitis, su estadificación e implicaciones clínicas.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Chorioamnionitis has been related to unfavorable outcomes in the prenatal and neonatal period (abortions, preterm delivery, neonatal sepsis, among others), as well as long-term implications in childhood, such as changes in IQ. For this reason, timely histopathological diagnosis is of vital importance. In this article, the histopathological approach to chorioamnionitis, its staging and clinical implications will be reviewed.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave</title>
<kwd>sepsis</kwd>
<kwd>corioamnionitis</kwd>
<kwd>funisitis</kwd>
<kwd>agentes infecciosos</kwd>
<kwd>neonato</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>ascending intra-amniotic infection</kwd>
<kwd>clinical chorioamnionitis</kwd>
<kwd>clinical chorioamnionitis</kwd>
<kwd>microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity</kwd>
<kwd>pathologic grading</kwd>
<kwd>placental pathology</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="1"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="59"/>
</counts>
<custom-meta-group>
<custom-meta>
<meta-name>Cómo citar</meta-name>
<meta-value>Caicedo Marmolejo BE, Olaya Contreras M. Actualidad en corioamnionitis: una mirada desde el microscopio. Univ. Med. 2022;63(4). <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed63-4.ahvf">https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed63-4.ahvf</ext-link>
</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec>
<title><bold>Introducción</bold></title>
<p>La infección de las membranas placentarias es una entidad patológica heterogénea, relacionada con repercusiones de alto impacto maternas, fetales, neonatales e incluso a largo plazo en el desarrollo del infante. Se define como <italic>corioamnionitis </italic>el proceso inflamatorio que afecta el corion y el amnios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>), lo cual indica una respuesta inflamatoria materna (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2">2</xref>). El estudio histopatológico de la placenta se ha convertido en un procedimiento de rutina en muchos centros asistenciales en diversos países, debido a que puede arrojar diagnósticos o hallazgos que inducen cambios en las conductas clínicas que pueden influir en la morbilidad y mortalidad materno-fetal.</p>
<p>En el mundo, la corioamnionitis representa la principal causa de mortalidad fetal en el segundo trimestre de gestación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref3">3</xref>), además de estar relacionada como factor de riesgo para ruptura prematura de membranas y parto pretérmino. Es de resaltar que el parto pretérmino y el riesgo de infección del neonato están asociados con el pronóstico a corto, mediano y largo plazo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>). Se calcula que el 10% de todos los embarazos cursan con corioamnionitis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref6">6</xref>). La infección puede avanzar y afectar la cavidad intramniótica en el 40%-70% de los partos pretérmino y ruptura prematura de membranas. La prevalencia de la corioamnionitis es inversamente proporcional a la edad gestacional, ya que se presenta en más del 50% de las gestaciones entre 23 y 24 semanas, y en el 5% de los embarazos mayores de 37 semanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>); adicionalmente, afecta del 1% al 4% de los embarazos gemelares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref3">3</xref>).</p>
<p>En Colombia, la frecuencia de la corioamnionitis en todos los embarazos es del 7% al 12%, y es responsable de un tercio de los partos pretérmino (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref7">7</xref>). En el 50% de los fetos expuestos a infecciones intrauterinas se desencadenan cuadros inflamatorios sistémicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref8">8</xref>); por el contrario, el 80% de las gestantes permanecen asintomáticas, lo cual refleja la baja sensibilidad de la sintomatología materna para el diagnóstico de infecciones intrauterinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref9">9</xref>). En Estados Unidos, el costo del tratamiento de las gestantes y de los recién nacidos afectados por estas entidades alcanzan valores por 26,2 billones de dólares al año (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref10">10</xref>), lo cual deja en claro que son de impacto en los servicios de salud. No menos importante es el impacto en el desarrollo neurológico de los niños afectados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref13">13</xref>).</p>
<p>El estudio histológico de las placentas está indicado cuando hay evidencia de infección materna, fetal/neonatal o placentaria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref14">14</xref>). Sin embargo, en la rutina, el reporte del resultado tarda alrededor de una semana, tiempo después del cual dicho resultado puede no cambiar ya el curso del tratamiento o del pronóstico neonatal.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Estado del arte</bold></title>
<p>Uno de los criterios para evaluar la salud de un país es la mortalidad materna y perinatal; por lo tanto, se consideran indicadores universales de condiciones y calidad de vida y, además, de acceso a los servicios de salud (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref16">16</xref>). Es bien conocida la influencia y el impacto que tiene la salud fetal en la morbilidad perinatal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref15">15</xref>), como es el caso de las infecciones <italic>in utero</italic> (corioamnionitis, villitis, intervillitis y funisitis), ya sean de origen bacteriano, viral o parasitario, que pueden predisponer a abortos, parto pretérmino, ruptura prematura de membranas, infecciones y complicaciones neonatales, así como discapacidades permanentes para el recién nacido.</p>
<p>La corioamnionitis aguda es la respuesta inflamatoria materna en el corion y amnios, desencadenada por contaminantes ambientales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref17">17</xref>), humo de cigarrillo, entre otras sustancias tóxicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref18">18</xref>); sin embargo, la causa principal es la infección generada por microrganismos que pueden llegar por cuatro vías principales a la interfase materno-fetal, donde se da la respuesta inmune.</p>
<p>Es necesario conocer la histología placentaria para realizar la correlación fisiopatológica y clínica de esta patología. Ahondamos en los aspectos básicos (histología y fisiología), regulación inmunológica, agentes causales, estudio histopatológico e implicaciones clínicas de la corioamnionitis.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Histología de la placenta</bold></title>
<p>La placenta está compuesta por tejidos de dos individuos (madre y feto) con diferencias en su componente genético. El saco amniótico que rodea al feto está compuesto por decidua (componente materno), corion y membranas amnióticas (componentes fetales). El amnios es una capa de células epiteliales y mesenquimales subyacentes, asociadas con una matriz extracelular y colágeno. El corion está compuesto por una capa reticular, la membrana basal y los trofoblastos. La decidua, que es el endometrio materno transformado del embarazo, está contiguo al corion, y sus componentes son células inmunes maternas, células del estroma decidual y trofoblastos extravellosos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref19">19</xref>). Las vellosidades coriónicas están conformadas por capilares fetales, células estromales, citrofoblasto y un recubrimiento externo compuesto por un epitelio simple de células de sincitotrofoblasto. En la interfase coriodecidual hay células inflamatorias residentes que tienen una programación para la respuesta inmune diferente, la cual permite mantener la tolerancia a los tejidos fetales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref21">21</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Fisiopatología de la respuesta inflamatoria materna (corioamnionitis)</bold></title>
<p>El saco gestacional tiene propiedades inmunológicas privilegiadas que protegen al feto alogénico del rechazo del sistema inmune materno. Entre tanto, son diferentes los perfiles y las funciones inmunológicas de las células inmunes que habitan en el espacio coriodecidual (células deciduales, células NK, linfocitos T CD4+ y CD8+, macrófagos y células dendríticas) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref22">22</xref>), en contraste con sus contrapartes sanguíneas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref23">23</xref>); sin embargo, el arsenal de células cambia durante la respuesta a infecciones y durante el parto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref24">24</xref>).</p>
<p>La primera línea de defensa está compuesta por las membranas amnióticas, que ejercen una función de barrera física. El amnios tiene la capacidad de producir péptidos antimicrobianos y el trofoblasto reconoce antígenos de patógenos a través de receptores tipo Toll (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref25">25</xref>); una vez se identifica la presencia de patógenos, se activan células del sistema inmune materno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref26">26</xref>) por medio de la liberación de quimioatrayentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref27">27</xref>) (IL-8 y CSF3), en particular neutrófilos, que migran desde las vénulas poscapilares maternas hacia el espacio subcorial y decidual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>). Por lo tanto, el primer indicador de respuesta inflamatoria materna es la subcorionitis aguda (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>), que progresivamente avanza e infiltra los tejidos de la barrera materno-fetal, resultando en corioamnionitis aguda. La intensidad de la inflamación la regula la interacción entre neutrófilos, macrófagos, linfocitos T CD8+ y células del estroma decidual, por medio de la secreción ajustada de citocinas, quimiocinas y prostaglandinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref28">28</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Vías de infección</bold></title>
<p>Hasta el momento se reconocen cuatro vías de invasión a la cavidad amniótica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref29">29</xref>). La primera vía y la más común es el ascenso desde el tubo genital inferior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>), y dado que los principales agentes causales de la corioamnionitis son organismos que hacen parte de la flora cervicovaginal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref31">31</xref>), se plantea que la proliferación de la flora normal se genera por alteraciones en el microambiente local (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref32">32</xref>); en otros casos, los organismos colonizadores provendrían de otros sitios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>). Los agentes patógenos acceden a la cavidad uterina desde el compartimiento cervicovaginal y se localizan inicialmente en la decidua de la región supracervical, para propagarse posteriormente al espacio corioamniótico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref33">33</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref35">35</xref>).</p>
<p>La segunda vía de colonización es la hematógena, la cual representa una minoría de los casos. Se lleva a cabo cuando microrganismos, como <italic>Listeria monocytogene</italic>, virus del Zika, <italic>Treponema pallidum</italic> y el complejo TORCH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref36">36</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref40">40</xref>), tienen acceso al espacio intervelloso a través de la circulación materna; por lo tanto, a diferencia de las infecciones ascendentes, las infecciones generadas por vía hematógena causan inflamación principalmente en las vellosidades coriónicas y el espacio intervelloso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref28">28</xref>).</p>
<p>La tercera vía es la inoculación accidental de flora cutánea durante la amniocentesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref28">28</xref>).</p>
<p>La cuarta vía es una de las menos frecuentes, y consiste en la diseminación de infecciones por la contigüidad con estructuras abdominales (salpingitis, cistitis, peritonitis, apendicitis, entre otras del tracto gastrointestinal) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Agentes causales</bold></title>
<p>El grupo principal de patógenos que desencadena la respuesta inflamatoria en la cavidad corioamniótica está constituido por bacterias aerobias o anaerobias que habitan las vías genitourinarias, el tubo gastrointestinal o la piel. Las bacterias aisladas con mayor frecuencia son micoplasmas genitales (principalmente especie <italic>Ureaplasma</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref41">41</xref>) y estreptococo del grupo B (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref42">42</xref>). Otros microrganismos comunes son <italic>Gardenella vaginalis</italic>, especies de fusobacteria y <italic>Escherichia coli</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref45">45</xref>). Aunque no se tienen estadísticas claras, la corioamnionitis también la pueden causar hongos, y en este grupo los más destacados son las especies de <italic>Candida</italic>, particularmente <italic>Candida albicans</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref47">47</xref>). Menos frecuentes son las infecciones causadas por los virus y los parásitos mencionados anteriormente. En el 30% de los casos de infecciones corioamnióticas puede ser polimicrobiana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref48">48</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Histopatología</bold></title>
<p>En el último consenso de expertos en patología placentaria llevado a cabo en Ámsterdam, en el 2015, se estableció la clasificación de corioamnionitis histológica, estandarizando la estadificación de la inflamación. El grupo de expertos resaltó la importancia de la descripción topográfica de la inflamación, pues esto permite diferenciar la respuesta materna de la fetal. El discernimiento entre estas dos entidades tiene relevancia clínica, debido a que se han relacionado peores desenlaces fetales asociados con la respuesta inflamatoria fetal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref50">50</xref>). Adicionalmente, hicieron hincapié en que se debe de aclarar la cronicidad de la infección (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref51">51</xref>). La respuesta inflamatoria materna y fetal fueron subdivididas en etapas y grados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>). El término <italic>etapas </italic>hace referencia a la progresión de la inflamación basándose en la región anatómica infiltrada por polimorfonucleares y, por lo tanto, indica la duración del proceso; el término <italic>grado </italic>se refiere a la intensidad de la inflamación en un sitio anatómico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref28">28</xref>), e indica la severidad.</p>
<p>La primera señal histológica, es decir, estadio 1 de la respuesta inflamatoria materna, es la subcorionitis aguda, caracterizada por la presencia de un infiltrado en banda, compuesto por neutrófilos debajo de la placa coriónica o en el espacio intervelloso subcorial, en ausencia de inflamación en otros lugares (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf1">figura 1</xref>). Otro indicador inicial es la corionitis aguda, es decir, la presencia de polimorfonucleares neutrófilos en la unión coriodecidual. El estadio 2 hace referencia a la corioamnionitis aguda, que se define como un infiltrado inflamatorio de tipo neutrofílico en el corion o en el amnios. El estadio 3 se establece por la presencia de corioamnionitis necrosante, caracterizada por cariorexis de los neutrófilos, necrosis del amnios o eosinofilia de la membrana basal del amnios. El grado 1 se define como los casos clasificados como no severos; el grado 2 se establece como severo, y se definió como un cúmulo de polimorfonucleares o microabscesos subcoriónicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref51">51</xref>).</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf1">
<label><bold>Figura 1</bold></label>
<caption>
<title><italic>CAA estadio</italic> 1: subcorionitis aguda, con presencia de infiltrado en banda, compuesto por neutrófilos debajo de la placa coriónica. <italic>CAA estadio 2</italic>: corioamnionitis aguda. Se observa infiltrado inflamatorio de tipo neutrofílico en el corion y en el amnios. <italic>CAA estadio 3</italic>: corioamnionitis necrosante, donde se identifica un compromiso completo del corion y del amnios, incluyendo necrosis del amnios. <italic>Grado 1</italic>: sin formación de conglomerados de células inflamatorias agudas de tipo polimorfo-nuclear neutrófilo. <italic>Grado 2</italic>: presencia de abscesos.</title>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="231072191007_gf2.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait"/>
</fig>
</p>
<p>Anteriormente, el término <italic>corioamnionitis </italic>se utilizaba de forma indiscriminada para referirse a la presencia de inflamación intrauterina que presentaba signos clínicos o evidencia de laboratorio/histopatológico, lo que desembocó en una confusión, debido a que no siempre se correlaciona la corioamnionitis histológica con manifestaciones clínicas evidentes; por lo tanto, en el 2015 el panel de expertos del Instituto Nacional de Salud Infantil y Desarrollo Humano acuñó el término <italic>inflamación o infección intrauterina o ambos</italic>, abreviado como <italic>triple I</italic> para definir el síndrome clínico desencadenado por inflamación/infección intrauterina, que se define con criterios diagnósticos clínicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref54">54</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Implicaciones clínicas de la respuesta inflamatoria</bold></title>
<p>Como se ha mencionado, la infección/inflamación intrauterina está relacionada con múltiples desenlaces desfavorables a corto y largo plazo para el feto y la madre. Dentro de las complicaciones maternas, se conoce que la corioamnionitis eleva de dos a tres veces el riesgo de endometritis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref54">54</xref>), infección de herida del sitio operatorio, absceso pélvico, bacteriemia en el 10% de las mujeres y hemorragia posparto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref55">55</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref57">57</xref>). Datos clínicos, epidemiológicos y estudios han demostrado que la corioamnionitis desempeña un papel primordial en la predisposición del recién nacido a la falla orgánica multisistémica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref58">58</xref>). En un estudio realizado en México y publicado en el 2013 se concluyó que la corioamnionitis aumenta treinta veces el riego de desarrollar infección neonatal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref59">59</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title><bold>Conclusiones</bold></title>
<p>Es de vital importancia la identificación precoz y oportuna de la corioamnionitis, dados por el impacto negativo que puede tener en el periodo prenatal, neonatal y en la infancia, especialmente por la estrecha relación que se ha documentado con el desarrollo de lesiones en el sistema nervioso central de los infantes expuestos a esta entidad; por este motivo, los patólogos deben de estar familiarizados con esta patología, sus características históricas, diagnóstico y reporte temprano, al igual los clínicos deben identificar oportunamente los casos que requieran el estudios histopatológico y realizar los cambios en la conducta clínica requeridos para el manejo de cada caso.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><bold>Conflicto de intereses</bold></title>
<p>Las autoras informamos que no tenemos conflicto de intereses.</p>
</sec>
</body>
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