Emergency and urgent care professionals, including firefighters, experience greater exposure to potentially traumatic events because they respond to adverse events caused by individuals or nature (Moura, 2013; Schiraldi, 2000). These professionals work in contexts that demand quick, assertive responses to achieve optimal results in the event of fires, disasters, accidents, rescues, and other adversities (Almeida, 2012; Lima & Assunção, 2011).

According to the Bahia Military Fire Department (CBMBA, 2024), a total of 95,138 local calls were responded to in 2024. Of those, 9,092 were search and rescue, 5,945 were pre-hospital, and 8,504 were fire, involving 7,581 victims of adverse events. Additionally, firefighters carried out 30,937 guidance and prevention activities, as well as 40,670 technical activities. The most common incidents experienced by military firefighters in the surveyed municipality are searches, rescues, and salvage operations in aquatic environments; assistance and transportation of accident victims; and rescues.

Exposure to adverse and potentially traumatic events can occur when experiencing the event itself, observing others experience it, or experiencing it on multiple occasions (Nunes, 2019). To understand these events, it is necessary to consider subjectivity because a potentially traumatic event may or may not cause suffering in an individual. Nevertheless, continuous challenging experiences can make these professionals susceptible to post-traumatic stress, which may trigger either a state of illness, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or a process of personal growth, such as post-traumatic growth (PTG) (Maia & Fernandes, 2003).

PTSD is defined as a pathology that develops after experiencing traumatic events, which can occur suddenly or over a prolonged period. These events can include life-threatening situations, serious accidents, deaths, violence, and other traumatic experiences. PTSD is diagnosed when the individual exhibits a set of symptoms including avoidance behaviors, re-experiencing the event, and autonomic hyperarousal, which manifests as irritability, sweating, and tachycardia. For a diagnosis to be made, these symptoms must persist for more than a month and result in significant distress and impairment in important areas of life, such as work, study, or interpersonal relationships (American Psychiatric Association, 2014).

A study investigated the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in 130 firefighters in Portugal who reported experiencing at least one potentially traumatic event in the workplace, finding a prevalence of 9.2 % in the sample (Oliveira et al., 2023). However, negative outcomes after experiencing adverse events are not the only possible post-traumatic results. An increasing number of studies have focused on investigating positive changes that develop post-trauma, specifically the phenomenon of PTG (Armstrong et al., 2014; Henson et al., 2022; Yang & Ha, 2019).

PTG is characterized by positive psychological changes that individuals perceive as the result of coping with extremely challenging and significant situations. With PTG, people not only survive the traumatic event but also experience positive personal and world transformations that extend beyond challenging situations and encompass various areas of life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). These transformations include increased personal strength, a new perspective on life, discovering new possibilities after difficult experiences, more meaningful relationships, and spiritual changes (Tedeschi, 2011).

The relationship between PTSD and PTG is complex and still under investigation. A study of 816 firefighters (409 American firefighters and 406 French firefighters) analyzed the relationship between the phenomena, finding a positive and significant relationship in both samples (Henson et al., 2022). However, a study by Sun et al. (2020) with firefighters in China found no significant relationship between the two. Conclusive data on why some individuals experience the positive outcomes of PTG while others experience the negative outcomes of PTSD are still lacking. However, factors such as social and organizational support can act as protective factors against the possible outcomes experienced by individuals after potentially traumatic events (Armstrong et al., 2014).

Social support is considered a protective factor that mitigates the negative effects of workplace trauma. It encourages individuals to perceive changes via cognitive processes, modifying their understanding of the experience in a positive way (Ogińska-Bulik, 2015; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Social support is characterized as bonds of support between individuals that provide emotional or practical assistance and are perceived by the recipient (Coelho, 2019). Thus, social support is independent of specific contexts and can come from family, friends, coworkers, and others (Amorim-Ribeiro et al., 2022).

On the other hand, organizational support consists of social support from the organization in which the individual works. It can be defined as the employee's perception of how much their organization values them and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger et al., 2020; Siqueira & Gomide Junior, 2008). For high-risk workers such as firefighters, this perception can play an important role when they experience adverse work-related events (Brooks et al., 2019; Maitlis, 2020). A study conducted with 840 firefighters after a forest fire in Canada assessed the role of organizational support and the mental health of firefighters after exposure to the potentially traumatic event, finding results that suggest that organizational support is a protective factor after exposure, but its availability is poorly explored (Cherry et al., 2021).

PTSD is a well-studied construct in the United States, Europe, and countries that have experienced high-intensity wars, struggles, and disasters (Nascimento et al., 2022). However, the phenomenon is under-researched in Brazil, particularly in the context of firefighters' work, despite indicators of the prevalence of this diagnosis among these professionals (Lima & Assunção, 2011). Numerous studies have examined PTG in individuals, particularly in contexts of serious illness (Maitlis, 2020). However, there is a notable gap in research exploring PTG in the workplace, particularly among individuals exposed to adverse situations, such as firefighters.

In light of the above, this study aims to analyze how social and organizational support influence the potential outcomes of PTSD and PTG in firefighters who have experienced a potentially traumatic event at work. Additionally, the study seeks to characterize PTSD and PTG in firefighters and analyze the relationship between them in this population.

Method

Design

This study is quantitative and cross-sectional. The participants were analyzed at a single point in time, and the data for the variables of interest were collected simultaneously.

Participants

The minimum sample size was estimated using G*Power software (Faul et al., 2009), considering a medium effect size (f ^² = 0.15), a significance level of 0.05, statistical power of 0.80, and two predictor variables. The calculation indicated the need for at least 68 participants. Of the 95 firefighters who initially completed the Free and Informed Consent Form, three chose not to participate in the study, and 12 reported not having experienced at least one potentially traumatic event at work. Thus, 83 firefighters participated in the study, which guarantees adequate statistical power for the analyses performed. The mean age of the participants was 37.18 years (SD = 8.821). All participants were volunteers belonging to a group of 338 operational firefighters from four battalions in a municipality in the state of Bahia. Participants had to be over 18 years of age and have at least one year of service in the operational units to be included in the study. The sociodemographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1.

Ethical procedures

The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Institute of Psychology at the Federal University of Bahia (CAAE: 79728024.3.0000.5686). Upon invitation, participants were asked to read the Free and Informed Consent Form, which included a box to indicate whether or not they consented to participate in the study and agreed to the terms and conditions. The consent form included information about the study's objectives, confidentiality and privacy of information, rights as voluntary participants, and the researcher's contact information.

Data collection procedure

Initially, the General Command of the Bahia Military Fire Department (CBMBA) was contacted to explain the purpose of the research and obtain consent for data collection within the organization. After receiving authorization, the study began in September and continued until October 31, 2024. The research objectives were presented in person at the battalions. After the presentation, participants were invited to take part in the study. After providing informed consent, they could respond to the instruments in person or online via Google Forms (Google, 2008).

Instruments

In the scientific literature regarding the Likert scale, there are two perspectives: on one hand, variables are treated as ordinal, and on the other hand, as intervals, approximating equal values ​​between responses, which allows the use of parametric methods (Huh & Gim, 2025). Thus, it is indicated that parametric tests show robustness against ordinality and moderate deviations from normality (Norman, 2010). The scales used in this study are Likert-type scales, which will correspond to the average of multiple items, approximating the variables to an interval level. A preliminary normality analysis will be performed, and if the data are not normally distributed, data analyses will be performed using bootstrap (resampling with confidence intervals). The instrument consisted of six parts:

1. 1) To characterize the potentially traumatic event, a questionnaire consisting of two closed and open-ended questions was developed for the study. The aim was to characterize the nature of the potentially traumatic event experienced (e.g., fires, rescues, disasters, serious accidents, etc.) and how long ago it occurred.

2. 2) To collect the participants' sociodemographic information, a questionnaire was developed consisting of closed questions about the following: age, sex, marital status, occupation, number of children, level of education, use of medications, psychological or psychiatric care, and diagnosis of PTSD.

3. 3) Post-traumatic stress was assessed using the Impact of Event Scale – Revised (IES-R) (Caiuby et al., 2012), consisting of 22 items distributed across three subscales: avoidance, consisting of eight items (e.g., "Any memory brought back feelings about the situation," α = 0.918); intrusion, consisting of eight items (e.g., "I tried not to think about the situation," α = 0.892); and hyperarousal, consisting of six items (e.g., "I had trouble concentrating," α = 0.915). These items meet the DSM-IV criteria for assessing PTSD. The items were answered using a five-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 2 = a little, 3 = moderately, 4 = very much, and 5 = extremely) to indicate the extent to which the firefighters experienced each symptom. The internal consistency of the total scale in this study was α = 0.963.

4. 4) Post-traumatic growth was assessed using the Brazilian Version of the Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI-B) (Silva et al., 2016). Participants indicated the degree to which each of the 18 items occurred in their lives as a result of the potentially traumatic event they previously identified, based on five factors: relationship with others, consisting of six items (e.g., "I feel more compassion for other people," α = 0.894); new possibilities, consisting of five items (e.g., "I have set a new course for my life," α = 0.928); personal strength, consisting of three items (e.g., "I have discovered that I am stronger than I thought," α = 0.857); spiritual change, consisting of two items (e.g., "I understand spirituality better," α = 0.916); and appreciation for life, consisting of two items (e.g., "I appreciate my life more each day," α = 0.947). Respondents answered the items on a six-point Likert scale (0 = "I have not experienced this change"; 1 = "I have experienced this change to a very small degree"; 2 = "I have experienced this change to a small degree"; 3 = "I have experienced this change to a moderate degree"; 4 = "I have experienced this change to a large degree"; 5 = "I have experienced this change to a very large degree"), indicating how much they have experienced each aspect of PTG. The internal consistency of the total scale in this study was α = 0.961.

5. 5) Social support was assessed using the Social Support Perception Scale (EPSS) (Siqueira, 2008). The 29-item scale is divided into two factors: practical support, consisting of 19 items (e.g., "gives suggestions about professionals to help me," α = 0.957) and emotional support, consisting of 10 items (e.g., "understands my difficulties," α = 0.962). Participants reported the frequency with which they perceived the possibility of counting on someone's support using a four-point Likert scale (1 = never; 2 = rarely; 3 = often; 4 = always). The internal consistency of the total scale in this study was α = 0.964.

6. 6) Organizational support was assessed using the Organizational Support Perception Scale (EPSO) (Siqueira & Gomide Junior, 2008). This unifactorial scale consists of nine items that assess the individual's perception of the support offered by the organization. The firefighters rated their degree of agreement with specific statements about organizational support using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = moderately disagree; 3 = slightly disagree; 4 = neither agree nor disagree; 5 = slightly agree; 6 = moderately agree; 7 = strongly agree). The internal consistency of the total scale in this study was α = 0.679.

Data analysis

The database was initially organized in an Excel spreadsheet (Microsoft, 2013). As a preliminary step, participants who reported not having experienced a potentially traumatic event were excluded to ensure that the analyzed data were representative of the study's target population. The data were then imported into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences [SPSS] (IBM Corp., 2024) software for statistical analysis and into the Jamovi software (The jamovi project, 2025) for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

The data were initially coded to facilitate analysis. Since all questions in the data collection instruments were mandatory, ensuring complete responses to all variables investigated, an analysis of missing data was not performed. The normality of the study variables was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, observing a significant deviation from normality related to the variables of Post-Traumatic Growth (p = 0.015) and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (p = 0.000). To consider the robustness of the study, subsequent analyses were performed using bootstrap (1,000 resampling’s, 95 % confidence interval), ensuring rigor in the estimates. Descriptive analyses of the means, standard deviations, and frequencies of the independent variables and outcomes were also performed.

CFA was performed using the jamovi software (The jamovi project, 2025) to evaluate the factorial structure of the instruments used in the studied sample. During the process, modifications were made to the model, including inserting covariances between some items on the scales, three modifications were made to the EPSO scale between items, for example: “this organization would ignore any complaint from me” and “this organization does not consider my interests when making decisions that affect me.” These adjustments were made based on semantic and interpretative criteria, as recommended by Pan et al. (2017), in order to improve the model's fit to the empirical data. Although some indicators were close to the limits recommended in the literature, the results can be considered reasonable, considering the study's sample size. (Table 2). Internal consistency of the scales was evaluated by calculating Cronbach's alpha to verify the reliability of the measures.

Subsequently, analyses were performed using a t-test for independent samples and a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine if there were differences in outcome levels among groups. Levene's test was used to assess the assumption of homogeneity of variance. Due to the absence of homogeneity of variance, Welch's correction was also applied.

Finally, Pearson's r correlation and linear regression analyses were performed. Pearson's r correlation analysis was used to examine the linear relationship between PTSD, PTG, social support, and organizational support, measuring the strength and direction of this relationship. As previously mentioned, the normality of the distributions was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test, and subsequently, in order to increase the accuracy of the Pearson correlation estimates, the analyses were performed using the bootstrap procedure, with a 95 % confidence interval.

Linear regression was used to analyze how an independent variable influences the dependent variable by modeling their relationship with a linear equation. Initially, the normality of the residuals was assessed using the histogram and the normal P-P plot, finding an approximately normal distribution (-1.49; SD = 0.099) and standard residual values ​​ranging from (-2.187 to 1.931). The independence of the errors was confirmed by the Durbin-Watson test (DW = 1.70). Linearity and homoscedasticity were analyzed using the scatter plot among the standardized residuals, observing a random distribution among the points, without a curvilinear pattern. Multicollinearity was assessed using the Tolerance Index (1.000) and the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF = 1.000), as well as the Condition Index (7.185), indicating the absence of problematic collinearity. Stepwise regression was used, which allowed only the independent variables (social support and organizational support) that showed a significant association with the dependent variables (PTSD and PTG) to be included in the model. After analyzing the correlation, a protective variable showed a positive and significant association with an outcome (Social Support and Post-Traumatic Growth), and the analysis was performed using this input method. This analytical choice was adopted to analyze the overall dimension of Social Support and its factors (practical and emotional social support), allowing us to identify which of the dimensions presented was responsible for the greatest capacity to explain the outcome prediction, and thus remained in the model. This analysis made it possible to calculate the coefficient of determination (R²), which estimates the proportion of variability in the dependent variable explained by the independent variable.

Results

First, the results regarding the central characteristics of the analyzed post-traumatic outcomes, namely PTSD and PTG, are presented. Next, the differences in PTSD and PTG between the groups of firefighters, divided by time since and nature of the event experienced, are reported. Lastly, the associations analyzed between the protective factors and the outcome variables, as well as the relationships between the outcome variables themselves, are described.

The mean score for PTSD was 0.94 (SD = 0.82), indicating low levels of distress related to potentially traumatic events. Analyses of the dimensions revealed significant correlations with the phenomenon. The strongest correlations were observed for intrusion (r = 0.957, p < 0.001), hyperarousal (r = 0.937, p < 0.001), and avoidance (r = 0.915, p < 0.001). These results suggest the importance of these dimensions in the manifestation of PTSD symptoms in the firefighters. The mean score for PTG was 2.61 (SD = 1.36). Analyses of the dimensions revealed significant correlations with the phenomenon. The strongest correlations were observed for new possibilities (r= 0.902, p < 0.001), interpersonal relationships (r = 0.864, p < 0.001), personal strength (r = 0.851, p < 0.001), appreciation for life (r = 0.848, p < 0.001), and spiritual change (r = 0.848, p < 0.001). These results suggest that all evaluated dimensions are relevant to the positive changes perceived by the firefighters after experiencing trauma (Table 3).

Firefighters who experienced the event up to one year before responding to the survey had higher PTSD scores (M = 1.25, SD = 0.95) than those who experienced the event more than a year before (M = 0.76, SD = 0.62). There were statistically significant differences between the two groups (t (43.12) = 2.405, p < 0.021, CI = 0.77, 0.88). Similarly, people who experienced the event up to one year before responding to the survey had higher PTG scores (M= 2.70, SD = 1.37) than those who experienced the event more than a year before (M = 2.45, SD = 1.41), though the difference was not statistically significant (t (73) = 0.752, p > 0.454, CI = -0.41, 0.91).

Regarding possible differences in outcome scores depending on the type of potentially traumatic event, the data showed significant differences in PTSD (F (5, 77) = 4.513, p < 0.001), and Levene's test indicated homogeneity of variances between groups (F (5, 77) = 2.120, p > 0.072). The mean PTSD score was 1.34 (SD = 0.93) for participants who reported experiencing serious accidents, 0.86 (SD = 0.74) for rescues, 0.59 (SD = 0.43) for disasters, 0.79 (SD = 0.80) for fires, 0.61 (SD = 0.46) for deaths, and 2.81 (SD = 0.14) for those who reported experiencing all of the aforementioned events (serious accidents, rescues, disasters, fires, and deaths). The Hochberg GT2 post hoc test revealed significant differences between the group that experienced all of the aforementioned events and the rescue (p < 0.010), disaster (p < 0.004), fire (p < 0.009), and death (p < 0.005) groups. There was no significant difference between the all-mentioned group and the serious-accidents group (p > 0.143). Regarding PTG, there were no statistically significant differences related to the type of potentially traumatic event (F (5, 77) = 1.155, p > 0.339). The means for each group were as follows: serious accidents: 3.01 (SD = 1.23); rescues: 2.75 (SD = 1.34); disasters: 1.90 (SD = 1.16); fires: 2.28 (SD = 1.58); deaths: 2.77 (SD = 1.46); and all mentioned (serious accidents, rescues, disasters, fires, and deaths): 2.36 (SD = 0.11).

The associations between potential protective factors (social and organizational support) and post-trauma outcomes were also analyzed. Social support showed a significant, moderate correlation with PTG overall (r = 0.336, p < 0.001) and with its factors. Practical support was the strongest factor (r = 0.333, p < 0.001), followed by emotional support (r = 0.312, p < 0.004). Conversely, organizational support showed no correlation with the phenomenon. Regarding PTSD, neither social nor organizational support showed significant correlations with the phenomenon (Table 3).

In the regression analysis, PTG was the dependent variable and overall social support and its factors (emotional and practical support) were the independent variables. In the stepwise model, overall social support was the only significant predictor of PTG (adjusted R^² = 0.102; β = 0.336; p < 0.002), explaining 10.2 % of its variation. The practical and emotional support factors did not contribute significantly to the model and were excluded (Table 4).

Finally, the relationship between the outcomes was analyzed. A positive, moderate, and significant correlation (r= 0.456, p < 0.001) was identified between PTSD and PTG. Analyses of the dimensions also indicated significant correlations with PTG, with the strongest correlations observed for intrusion (r = 0.471, p < 0.001), avoidance (r= 0.439, p< 0.001), and hyperarousal (r = 0.372, p < 0.001), as seen in Table 3. After analyzing the relationship between the outcomes, a regression analysis was performed, with PTG as the dependent variable and PTSD as the independent variable. The results indicated a significant influence of PTSD (adjusted R^² = 0.198, β = 0.456, p < 0.000), which explained about 19.8% of the variation in PTG (see Table 5).

Discussion

The objective of this study was to analyze how social and organizational support influence negative and positive outcomes in firefighters who have experienced a potentially traumatic event at work. The results indicated that social support was positively associated with PTG among the 83 Brazilian firefighters in the study sample after they experienced adverse events. However, neither type of support contributed to an explanation of PTSD. The results partially contribute to the study's objective by finding social support as a possible protective factor for a positive post-traumatic outcome, but did not find a reduction in suffering in a negative outcome, based on protective support, in this sample.

The average score for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in this study was low, corroborating the study by Leykin et al. (2013), which also found a low score investigating firefighters in Israel. The work context of Israeli and Brazilian firefighters may be different, experiencing different adverse events, but with similar outcomes. In Israel, exposure to traumatic and stressful events may be associated with armed conflict and war. In contrast, this study found that traumatic events were associated with natural disasters, fires, rescues, and accidents. The similarity of these low scores may be attributed to the stigmatization that the phenomenon associates with military firefighters, or it may demonstrate that firefighters exhibit adaptation (resilience) when experiencing potentially traumatic events. Future studies could investigate the consistency of the low distress found in these samples.

The average Post-Traumatic Growth score in firefighters in this study was moderate, showing a higher average than the studies by authors Kehl et al. (2015) with firefighters from Europe and Leykin et al. (2013) with firefighters from Israel. The results of this study indicated greater changes in new life possibilities and interpersonal relationships, which partially corroborates Sun et al. (2020) findings of greater changes in personal strength and interpersonal relationships in Chinese firefighters. Leykin et al.'s (2013) study found changes in personal strength and appreciation for life in Israeli firefighters. These findings suggest that, unlike firefighters in China and Israel, who emphasize personal strength as an important domain of the phenomenon, firefighters in Bahia perceive adverse events as an opportunity to reevaluate their trajectories and strengthen their social bonds. Thus, future studies could explore how culture contributes to the different nuances of PTG.

The nature of the traumatic event and the duration of exposure to it were relevant variables for differentiating PTSD scores, but not PTG scores. Considering exposure to various types of events (e.g., serious accidents, rescues, disasters, fires, deaths, and all the aforementioned groups), it was found that individuals exposed to multiple events are at a higher risk of developing PTSD than those exposed to only one event. These findings align with those of Armstrong et al. (2014), who also identified exposure to various traumatic events as a significant predictor of the phenomenon. Thus, both studies suggest that repeated exposure to potentially traumatic events can have a cumulative effect, increasing vulnerability to developing the disorder.

In the present study, the time elapsed since the potentially traumatic event was also important in explaining differences in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Firefighters who experienced the event less than a year ago presented higher levels of symptoms of the phenomenon compared to those who experienced the event longer ago. This finding may indicate a greater intensity of symptoms in the first moments after experiencing a potentially traumatic event. However, this data differs from the study by Henson et al. (2022), which found no relationship between the time elapsed since the event and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in American and French firefighters. The cross-sectional nature of this study may have prevented it from measuring whether symptom levels decrease over time, or whether firefighters with milder symptoms were able to participate in the study while those with more severe symptoms chose not to, in addition to the possibility of being removed from operational duties and performing administrative tasks.

Regarding the role of protective factors, no significant relationship was identified between social support and PTSD. This indicates that social support does not significantly contribute to the effects of the phenomenon, in this study. These results differ from those of Meyer et al. (2012), who identified low levels of social support as a significant predictor of PTSD in American firefighters exposed to trauma. The differences in results can be attributed to the different ways in which social support is perceived and offered. Exposure to potentially traumatic events is common in the daily work of firefighters; the forms and intensities can vary depending on the events. Thus, for the support network (family, friends, or colleagues), these events are part of the individuals' activities, making it possible for support not to be offered and therefore not perceived by the subjects. The study's results could have shown different findings if a particularly significant adverse event had occurred at the time the research was conducted.

Similarly, organizational support was not significantly associated with PTSD in the military firefighters. This finding contradicts the study by Kelley et al. (2014), which identified a negative correlation between organizational support and PTSD in American soldiers after a combat mission in Iraq. That study found that soldiers who perceived greater organizational support exhibited fewer PTSD symptoms. The discrepancy in the results can be explained by the characteristics of the professions, operational contexts, and how organizational support is perceived by each occupational group. Notably, the firefighters in this study are part of the Bahia Military Fire Department (CBMBA) and have access to a Professional Development Coordination (CVaP), which offers support and assistance to active and inactive military firefighters and their dependents (CBMBA, 2020). However, the professionals providing this support are firefighters who have graduated from programs in specific areas, such as psychology, but are employed by the institution through a process called "deviation of function." This composition of professionals can generate an environment of resistance or lack of trust among firefighters, hindering the effectiveness of the support offered.

The analysis of social support as a possible protective factor revealed a significant positive correlation with PTG, suggesting that firefighters who perceive more support from others tend to experience greater PTG. These findings align with those of Chen et al. (2021), Ko and Ha (2021), and Yoo et al. (2017), who also identified a significant correlation between social support and PTG in firefighters exposed to potentially traumatic events. The perception of support, whether practical or emotional, from a support network composed of family, friends, or colleagues, can benefit the development of positive aspects, such as helping firefighters consider new life possibilities, like a career transition or promotion, and strengthening their interpersonal relationships. Although this relationship is significant, social support explains only part of the variability in PTG, since its association was moderate; therefore, other factors may contribute to this positive transformation.

However, organizational support was not significantly correlated with PTG in the firefighters. This result differs from that of Yao et al. (2023), who analyzed factors associated with PTG in Chinese nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic and found that organizational support positively affected PTG. Yao et al.'s (2023) study participants likely perceived greater organizational support regarding training and protective equipment because they were on the front lines of the pandemic. This may have minimized adverse experiences and enhanced positive changes. However, unlike nurses during the pandemic, firefighters face continuous risk and may not perceive or associate this support with positive post-traumatic changes. Additionally, the perception of organizational support depends not only on what is offered but also on how it is made available and communicated.

Finally, the moderate and significant relationship between PTSD and PTG found in this study reinforces the idea that traumatic experiences can cause suffering but also enable positive change. This finding aligns with the results of Henson et al. (2022), who examined French and American firefighters exposed to recurrent traumatic events and observed positive changes resulting from these events. In the present study, intrusion was the dimension of PTSD most strongly related to PTG, suggesting that repetitive processes such as flashbacks, dreams, and intrusive thoughts may function as a coping mechanism, enabling individuals to construct new interpretations and make cognitive changes that favor PTG. Beyond the contribution of this finding, it is important that future research investigates variables that may also contribute to the development of PTG, since in this investigated sample PTSD explained only 19.8 % of the variation in PTG, with the possibility that other factors may also potentiate these positive changes.

Final Considerations

This study contributed to understanding how the protective factors of social support and organizational support manifest themselves in relation to the outcomes of PTSD and PTG Disorder in the work context of firefighters in Bahia. While no significant associations were found between the analyzed factors and PTSD, social support was significantly related to PTG, suggesting that support networks can facilitate positive personal and global changes after adverse events. The study also revealed that firefighters who were repeatedly exposed to potentially traumatic events were at a higher risk of developing PTSD than those who experienced only one adverse event. Additionally, firefighters who experienced the event more recently exhibited greater symptoms of PTSD than those who experienced the event longer ago. The moderate and significant relationship between PTSD and PTG shows that potentially traumatic events can trigger distress and negative outcomes but can also foster positive growth, especially in terms of new life possibilities and interpersonal relationships. Consistent with some findings in the scientific literature, negative outcomes from adverse events can be perceived as a "force" that fosters positive change by altering the individual's perception of themselves and their surroundings.

Despite its contributions, this study has limitations. It is important to consider that the cross-sectional design prevents causal inferences about the relationships between support systems and outcomes. The tendency to answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others is a concern, especially since PTSD is still stigmatized among firefighters; furthermore, the use of self-report instruments can also introduce response bias. I also point out the borderline internal consistency observed in the Organizational Support Perception scale and suggest exploring future studies that could explore this scale in other samples and investigate the item fits and its unifactorial structure. It is also possible that professionals with higher levels of mental distress chose not to participate due to the sensitive nature of the research, which addresses issues that may trigger more intense symptoms. Additionally, a significant limitation is the potential exclusion of professionals no longer involved in operational activities, which may have restricted access to a substantial portion of the target population. Some firefighters are removed from duty due to mental illness, creating an inherent difficulty in researching this topic. Finally, the small number of participants may have impacted the representativeness of the results. These limitations underscore the importance of future studies with larger samples.

References

Notes

^* Research article.

Author notes

^a Correspondence author. Email: sjmanuela@outlook.com

Additional information

How to cite: Sotero, M. D. S. J., & Carneiro, L. L. (2026). Growth and post-traumatic stress in firefighters. Universitas Psychologica, 25, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy25.gpsf

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