This section summarizes the method, sample group, data collection tools, and analysis processes used in the study.

Data were analyzed using SPSS 27 (IBM Corp., 2017) and Lisrel 8.51 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2001). Whether the scales showed normal distribution was examined in the range of skewness and kurtosis values ​​(-3, +3) and parametric tests were applied (Kalaycı, 2009). Relationships between scales were evaluated using Pearson Correlation Analysis, and differences according to categorical variables were evaluated using Independent Samples t-test and ANOVA. The mediating role of childhood traumas between parental attitudes and perception of God was tested using structural equation model. The validity of the model was examined with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and then path analyses were performed. The study was based on a 95 % confidence interval and a p < 0.05 significance level.

Table 1 Table 1 Relationship between the Ego Functions Scale and the Childhood Trauma Scale Notes.

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

As presented in Table 1, childhood trauma was significantly associated with multiple ego functions. The total childhood trauma score was positively correlated with several negatively oriented ego functions, including reality evaluation (r = 0.31, 95 % CI [0.23, 0.39]), trial (r = 0.28, 95 % CI [0.20, 0.36]), thought processes (r = 0.29, 95 % CI [0.21, 0.37]), object relations (r = 0.24, 95 % CI [0.16, 0.32]), emotion–impulse control (r= 0.27, 95 % CI [0.19, 0.35]), defensive functioning (r = 0.36, 95 % CI [0.28, 0.43]), and autonomic functions (r= 0.36, 95 % CI [0.28, 0.43]). In contrast, total childhood trauma was negatively correlated with positively oriented ego functions, including creativity (r = −0.16, 95 % CI [−0.24, −0.07]), synthesis ability (r = −.017, 95 % CI [−0.25, −0.09]), and dominance achievement (r= −0.29, 95 % CI [−0.37, −0.21]). These correlations were small to moderate in magnitude. At the subscale level, emotional abuse and emotional neglect were associated with multiple ego functions.

Table 2 Table 2 Relationship between the Ego Functions Scale and the Perceived Parental Attitudes Scale Notes.

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

As shown in Table 2, perceived parental attitudes were significantly associated with ego functions. Overprotective and rejecting parental attitudes (for both mother and father) were positively correlated with negatively oriented ego functions (r values ranging between 0.18 and 0.33). Parental emotional warmth was negatively correlated with negatively oriented ego functions, particularly defensive functioning (mother: r = −0.13; father: r = −0.14) and autonomic functions (mother: r = −0.17; father: r = −0.16), and positively correlated with positively oriented ego functions, including creativity (mother: r = 0.34; father: r = 0.27), synthesis ability (mother: r= 0.24; father: r = 0.17), and dominance achievement (mother: r = 0.31; father: r = 0.29). These correlations were small to moderate in magnitude.

Table 3 Table 3 Relationship between Ego Functions Scale and God Perception Scale Notes.

^* p < 0.05, ^** p < 0.01

As presented in Table 3, positive and negative God beliefs were associated with ego functions in both positive and negative directions. Positive God belief was positively correlated with creativity (r = 0.11, 95 % CI [0.02, 0.19]), synthesis ability (r = 0.22, 95 % CI [0.14, 0.30]), and dominance achievement (r = 0.31, 95 % CI [0.23, 0.38]), and negatively correlated with negatively oriented ego functions, including reality evaluation (r = −0.15, 95 % CI [−0.24, −0.07]), thought processes (r = −0.14, 95 % CI [−0.22, −0.05]), defensive functioning (r = −0.14, 95 % CI [−0.22, −0.05]), and autonomic functions (r = −0.15, 95 % CI [−0.23, −0.06]).

Negative God belief was positively correlated with negatively oriented ego functions, including reality evaluation (r = 0.33, 95 % CI [0.25, 0.40]), thought processes (r = 0.32, 95 % CI [0.24, 0.40]), defensive functioning (r = 0.35, 95 % CI [0.28, 0.43]), and autonomic functions (r = 0.33, 95 % CI [0.25, 0.40]), and negatively correlated with synthesis ability (r = −0.09, 95 % CI [−0.18, −0.01]) and dominance achievement (r = −0.21, 95 % CI [−0.29, −0.12]). These correlations were small to moderate in magnitude.

Table 4 Table 4 Relationship between the Childhood Trauma Scale and the Perceived Parental Attitudes Scale Notes.

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

As shown in Table 4, childhood trauma was negatively correlated with parental emotional warmth (mother: r= −0.48, 95 % CI [−0.55, −0.41]; father: r = −0.49, 95 % CI [−0.55, −0.42]) and positively correlated with parental rejection (mother: r = 0.61, 95 % CI [0.55, 0.66]; father: r= 0.59, 95 % CI [0.53, 0.65]) and overprotectiveness (mother: r= 0.21, 95 % CI [0.13, 0.29]; father: r = 0.20, 95 % CI [0.12, 0.28]). At the subscale level, emotional neglect showed the highest negative correlations with parental emotional warmth (mother: r= −0.56; father: r = −0.55), whereas emotional abuse showed strong positive correlations with parental rejection (mother: r = 0.59; father: r = 0.56). These correlations ranged from small to large in magnitude.

Table 5 Table 5 Relationship between Childhood Trauma Scale and God Perception Scale Notes.

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

As presented in Table 5, childhood trauma was negatively correlated with positive God belief (r = −0.32, 95 % CI [−0.39, −0.24]) and positively correlated with negative God belief (r = 0.42, 95 % CI [0.34, 0.49]). At the subscale level, emotional abuse was positively correlated with negative God belief (r = 0.44, 95 % CI [0.37, 0.51]), whereas emotional neglect was negatively correlated with positive God belief (r= −0.30, 95 % CI [−0.38, −0.22]). Physical abuse, physical neglect, and sexual abuse also showed significant correlations with both dimensions of God belief. These correlations were small to moderate in magnitude.

Table 6 Table 6 Relationship between Perceived Parental Attitudes Scale and God Perception Scale Notes.

*p<0.05, **p<0.01

As shown in Table 6, parental emotional warmth was positively correlated with positive God belief (mother: r = 0.17, 95 % CI [0.09, 0.25]; father: r = 0.20, 95 % CI [0.12, 0.28]) and negatively correlated with negative God belief (mother: r = −0.21, 95 % CI [−0.29, −0.13]; father: r = −0.26, 95 % CI [−0.34, −0.18]). Parental rejection was negatively correlated with positive God belief (mother: r = −0.17, 95 % CI [−0.25, −0.09]; father: r = −0.17, 95 % CI [−0.25, −0.09]) and positively correlated with negative God belief (mother: r = 0.33, 95 % CI [0.25, 0.41]; father: r= 0.31, 95 % CI [0.23, 0.39]). Parental overprotectiveness showed positive correlations with negative God belief (mother: r = 0.26, 95 % CI [0.18, 0.34]; father: r = 0.24, 95 % CI [0.16, 0.32]). These correlations were small to moderate in magnitude.

Figure 1.

Notes. N:516, Ppa: Abbreviated Perceived Parenting Attitudes Scale, GAM: General Maternal Attitudes, GPA: General Paternal Attitudes, Ccq: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, EA: Emotional Abuse, PA: Physical Abuse, PN: Physical Neglect, EN Emotional Neglect, SA: Sexual Abuse, PG: Perception of God Scale, PGB: Positive God Belief, NGB: Negative God Belief.

This study examined the relationships between childhood traumas and ego functions, perceived parental attitudes, and perception of God. The findings show that childhood traumas cause significant impairments in ego functions, and that functions such as reality assessment, judgment, object relations, defense mechanisms, and affect regulation are particularly affected. Childhood traumas have also been linked to borderline personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder, and emotion regulation problems (Jiang, 2024; Herzog & Schmahl, 2018; Stepp et al., 2016). It has been observed that the ability to evaluate reality is significantly related to childhood traumas and that this impairment may increase psyhopathological symptoms (Flechsenhar et al., 2024; Velikonja et al., 2015). In meta-analysis studies, it has been determined that childhood abuse and neglect are significantly associated with emotional abuse and certain psychopathological processes (Toutountzidis et al., 2022; Xiao et al., 2023). Impairment of the ability to evaluate reality can be explained by the unpredictable fluctuations in ego functioning due to early traumatic experiences. Findings show that childhood traumas impair the individual's thought processes and weaken logical, organized and abstract thinking skills (Fan & Kang, 2025; Goldstein, 1985). Moreover, it has been determined that such traumas are associated with affect regulation and impulse control, and therefore are linked to high impulsivity and risky behaviors (Richardson et al., 2024). It has been shown that individuals exposed to childhood traumas also have impaired defense mechanisms (Boyer et al., 2022).

In the current study, it has been observed that mother's emotional warmth strengthens the dominance-achievement and creativity functions among ego functions in adults. However, overprotective and rejecting parental attitudes negatively affect children's independent decision-making processes, object relations and ego integration processes (Nishikawa et al., 2010; Salmin et al., 2021). Overprotective parenting adversly effects children's ability to cope independently with developmentally appropriate challenges, weakens their sense of self-efficacy and increases the individual's dependence on external resources. In particular, it has been shown that emotional warmth from mother strengthens ego functions, while emotional warmth from father supports the development of autonomy by increasing the individual's risk-taking capacity (Dmitrieva & Espel, 2023). In terms of God perception, the current study’s findings show that positive God belief is associated with stronger ego functions, while negative God belief is linked to traumatic experiences. It has been found that individuals who experienced trauma in childhood tend to perceive God as punitive, distant or indifferent (Kosarkova et al., 2020; Tailor et al., 2014). It is thought that negative perception of God is more common especially in individuals who experienced parental rejection, and that relationships established with parents in the early period shape the individual's perception of God (Smoljo-Dobrovoljski, 2025; Pranata, 2023; Rizzuto, 1974). When gender factor is examined, it is seen that women were seen to have more positive perception of God compared to men (Masha’al et al., 2022). This situation can be associated with the fact that the characteristics attributed to feminity such as compassionate, inclusive, forgiving and caring are largely similar to the characteristics attributed to positive perception of God. This gender difference in the perception of God may be affected by socialization factors and stereotyped gender roles.

According to the structural equation model created in the study, it was determined that perceived parental attitudes do not directly predict perception of God. However, childhood traumas play a full mediating role in the relationship of parental attitudes and perception of God. This result shows that childhood traumas indirectly shape the perception of God. Previous research has shown that positive parental attitudes contribute to individual’s tendency to develoe more secure attachment, which leads to more positive perception of God (Kıraç, 2021; Thomson et al., 2025).

Studies show that an individual's early object relations are decisive in their attitudes towards God. For example, it has been found that individuals with an avoidant attachment style, which is an indicator of distorted object relations, see God as more punitive and feel less emotionally close to God (Pollard et al., 2014; Thomson et al., 2025). Literature shows that childhood traumas can shape an individual's perception of God through low self-esteem, negative cognitive distortions, and dissociative tendencies (Kosarkova et al., 2020). The result of the current study is in line with that studies results with an exceptions that we have shown the likewise relationship between perception of God and ego functions. It has been found that individuals who have experienced emotional neglect and abuse in childhood have difficulty perceiving God as a loving and forgiving figure and develop a more distant perception of God (Kosarkova et al., 2020; Waldron et al., 2018).

In the current study, no direct relationship was found between perceived parental attitudes and ego functions. This unexpected result may have been obtained due to confounder variables such as presence an effects of caregivers other than mother and father; other authority figures starting from infant school; duration of exposure to screen and effect of its contents (Schill &Wang, 1983).

The findings obtained show that parent-child relationships may overlap with the individual's perception of divine authority and that this should be taken into account in clinical evaluations. It is thought that deficiencies in early object relations in particular may be associated with psychopathological symptoms.

The study did not address the individuals' belief system and behavioral expressions of their devotion to God (regularity and continuity of existing worship, prayer and other religious requirements such as pilgrimage and fasting, etc.). It is recommended that future studies be expanded to include behavioral expressions of religious beliefs by covering different age groups and demographic characteristics. The sample group of the study consists of relatively young adult individuals. In this context, further studies may consider to include different age groups and groups with different demographic characteristics other than heteronormative sexual orientation.