<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><?xml-model type="application/xml-dtd" href="http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1d3/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd"?>
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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="marcador">2310</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title specific-use="original" xml:lang="es">Universitas Medica</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher" xml:lang="es">Univ. Med.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0041-9095</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2011-0839</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Pontificia Universidad Javeriana</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>
<country>Colombia</country>
<email>revistascientificasjaveriana@gmail.com</email>
</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="art-access-id" specific-use="marcador">231054933012</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.11144/Javeriana.umed59-2.cand</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artículos de revisión</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es">Opciones terapéuticas frente a especies de Candida resistentes a las equinocandinas</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Therapeutic Options in the Management of Echinocandin Resistant
Candida Species</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7426-6181</contrib-id>
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Cortés Hidalgo</surname>
<given-names>Andrea Patricia</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1">
<sup>a</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
<email>andrecortes29@gmail.com</email>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0752-2261</contrib-id>
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Roa Dueñas</surname>
<given-names>Oscar Hernando</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1528-2672</contrib-id>
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Méndez Fandiño</surname>
<given-names>Yardany Rafael</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5419-4494</contrib-id>
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Álvarez-Moreno</surname>
<given-names>Carlos A.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<institution content-type="original">Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia. ORCID: 0000-0002-7426-6181</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Pontificia Universidad Javeriana</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<institution content-type="original">Erasmus
Medical Center, Rotterdam, Holanda</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Erasmus
Medical Center</institution>
<country country="NL">Holanda</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Boyacá, Colombia. ORCID: 0000-0002-0752-2261</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Boyacá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<institution content-type="original">Erasmus Medical
Center, Rotterdam, Holanda</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Erasmus Medical
Center</institution>
<country country="NL">Holanda</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia,
Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Nacional de Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional de Colombia</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<institution content-type="original">Clínica Universitaria
Colombia, Colsanitas S. A., Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Clínica Universitaria
Colombia, Colsanitas S. A.</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
<label>
<sup>a</sup>
</label>
<p>Correspondencia:
andrecortes29@gmail.com</p>
</fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
<season>April-June</season>
<year>2018</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>59</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>37</fpage>
<lpage>51</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received" publication-format="dd/mm/yyyy">
<day>29</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2016</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-request" publication-format="dd/mm/yyyy">
<day>07</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2017</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted" publication-format="dd/mm/yyyy">
<day>29</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2017</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<ali:free_to_read/>
<license xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<ali:license_ref>https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ali:license_ref>
<license-p>Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 Internacional.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>
<bold> Introducción</bold>: La infección por levaduras del género <italic>Candida</italic> representa la causa más común de infecciones fúngicas invasivas. Su alta incidencia y la creciente resistencia frente a los azoles y, recientemente, a las equinocandinas ha generado la necesidad de buscar nuevas alternativas farmacológicas. Esta revisión presenta las principales alternativas farmacológicas en estudio frente a <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas. <bold>Métodos</bold>: Se buscó literatura referente al tema en las bases de datos Bireme, Clinical Key, Embase, Cochrane, Lilacs, Pubmed y Scopus. Se incluyeron 15 artículos en esta revisión. <bold>Resultados</bold>: Se exploran diferentes alternativas, incluyendo el aumento de dosis de las equinocandinas, su combinación con otros medicamentos y nuevos compuestos en estudio. <bold>Conclusión</bold>: A pesar de que las infecciones por <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas aún representan un desafío, dos alternativas farmacológicas se presentan como promisorias: la combinación con medicamentos existentes como el diclofenaco y nuevos compuestos que se encuentran actualmente en fase II de estudios clínicos.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>
<bold> Introduction</bold>: <italic>Candida</italic> yeasts infections represent the most common cause of invasive fungal infections. Its high incidence and increasing resistance to azoles and, recently, to echinocandins has generated the need to find new therapeutic options. This review presents the main pharmacological alternatives in research against echinocandins resistant <italic>Candida</italic>. <bold>Methods</bold>: A search was conducted in the databases of Bireme, Clinical Key, Embase, Cochrane, Lilacs, Pubmed and Scopus. 15 articles were included in this review. <bold>Results</bold>: Several alternatives are explored, including increased doses of echinocandins, combination with other drugs and new compounds under study. <bold>Conclusion</bold>: Although resistant <italic>Candida</italic> infections still represent a challenge, two pharmacological approaches show promise: The combination with existing medicaments such as diclofenac, and new compounds that are currently in Phase II of clinical trials.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave</title>
<kwd>equinocandinas</kwd>
<kwd>Candida</kwd>
<kwd>farmacorresistencia fúngica</kwd>
<kwd>antifúngicos</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>echinocandins</kwd>
<kwd>Candida</kwd>
<kwd>drug resistance</kwd>
<kwd>fungal</kwd>
<kwd>antifungal agents</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="1"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="91"/>
</counts>
<custom-meta-group>
<custom-meta>
<meta-name>Cómo citar</meta-name>
<meta-value>Cortés Hidalgo AP, Roa Dueñas OH, Méndez
Fandiño YR, Álvarez-Moreno CA. Opciones terapéuticas frente a especies
de Candida resistentes a las equinocandinas. Univ. Med.
2019;59(2): 37-51. doi: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed59-2.cand">https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed59-2.cand</ext-link>
</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
		
		<sec sec-type="intro">
            <title>Introducción</title>
			
			
		<p> La infección por levaduras del género <italic>Candida</italic> es la causa más común de infecciones fúngicas invasivas y sus manifestaciones clínicas van desde el compromiso mucocutáneo hasta la afectación invasiva, que incluso puede ser letal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref2">2</xref>).  </p>
<p> Desde el punto de vista epidemiológico, la infección por especies de <italic>Candida</italic> constituye una importante causa de morbimortalidad, a pesar de los avances considerables en su tratamiento. Se encuentra entre los primeros cinco microrganismos comúnmente aislados en hemocultivos de pacientes hospitalizados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref3">3</xref>) y la mortalidad global está entre un 30% y un 60%, con tasas de mortalidad atribuible del 25% al 40% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref7">7</xref>). </p>
<p> Con respecto a América Latina, la incidencia general de candidemia reportada en Brasil es de 2,49 casos por cada 1000 admisiones hospitalarias, y de 0,37 casos por cada 1000 pacientes/día (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref8">8</xref>). Ello es 3 a 15 veces mayor que la incidencia reportada en Norteamérica y Europa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref10">10</xref>). En Colombia, la incidencia reportada de infecciones por especies de <italic>Candida</italic> es de 2,3 casos por cada 1000 días de estancia en unidades de cuidado intensivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref11">11</xref>). Por otra parte, el aumento sostenido de la prevalencia de candidiasis invasiva, probablemente debido al incremento de pacientes inmunocomprometidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref12">12</xref>), y la aparición de resistencia al fluconazol, el medicamento de elección durante varios años, en especies previamente sensibles (v. g. <italic>Candida albicans</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref13">13</xref>) o el incremento de especies con resistencia natural o disminuida (p. ej., <italic>C. glabrata</italic> o <italic>C. krusei</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref14">14</xref>) determinó la necesidad de buscar tratamientos alternativos o superiores a los azoles. </p>
<p> Las equinocandinas se introdujeron por primera vez en el mercado farmacéutico en el 2001 como antifúngicos de amplio espectro y son un tratamiento efectivo frente a las infecciones invasivas por especies de <italic>Candida</italic> o <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sección <italic>Fumigatti</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref18">18</xref>). Su utilidad radica en que pueden administrarse de forma empírica en pacientes críticamente enfermos, al actuar en las especies de <italic>Candida</italic> más frecuentes, incluyendo <italic>C. glabrata</italic>, <italic>C. krusei</italic> y <italic>C. auris</italic>, esta última de más reciente aparición; pero que dadas sus características de multirresistencia puede ser un problema serio en Colombia, donde esto ya se ha descrito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref21">21</xref>). Además, las equinocandinas presentan mínimas interacciones farmacológicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref22">22</xref>), escasos efectos adversos y no requieren ajuste de dosis en enfermos renales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref1">1</xref>). Sin embargo, desde su introducción, en la práctica clínica se ha descrito su resistencia en especies de <italic>Candida</italic>. La literatura reporta tasas de prevalencia de resistencia entre 2,9% y 3,1% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref23">23</xref>) y en la mayoría de los casos corresponde a una resistencia adquirida postexposición a equinocandinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref24">24</xref>). </p>
<p> Entre los mecanismos de resistencia se encuentran tres de importancia: 1) una respuesta adaptativa frente al estrés, que aumenta el contenido de quitina en la pared celular y genera un crecimiento paradójico al administrar altas dosis de equinocandinas; 2) mutaciones en los genes <italic>FKS</italic> (genes relacionados con la codificación de la β-1,3-d-glucano sintasa) adquiridas, y 3) mutaciones <italic>FKS</italic> intrínsecas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref14">14</xref>).  </p>
<p> Por eso, la progresiva resistencia frente a las equinocandinas, asociada al incremento en su uso, la elevada incidencia de infecciones por <italic>Candida</italic> y la corresistencia a azoles y equinocandinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref25">25</xref>), ha generado la necesidad de estudiar los mecanismos de resistencia y buscar alternativas farmacológicas.</p>
<p> El objetivo de esta revisión narrativa es resumir y exponer las nuevas alternativas terapéuticas que se encuentran actualmente en estudio y que en un futuro podrían utilizarse para tratar las infecciones por <italic>Candida</italic> resistentes a equinocandinas.</p>
</sec>
	<sec sec-type="methods">
<title>Metodología</title>
<p> Se realizó una búsqueda en la literatura disponible en las bases de datos Bireme, Clinical Key, Embase, Cochrane, LILACS, Pubmed y Scopus. Se realizaron 4 búsquedas en cada base de datos, utilizando los siguientes términos MeSH: <italic>Echinocandin Candida resistant</italic>, <italic>Anidulafungin Candida resistance (or resistant)</italic>, <italic>Caspofungin Candida resistance (or resistant)</italic>, <italic>Micafungin Candida Resistance (or resistant)</italic>.  </p>
<p> No se utilizó el idioma ni el tipo de artículo como filtro para evitar disminuir la sensibilidad, especialmente teniendo en cuenta que un número significativo de publicaciones sobre el tema son experimentos clínicos realizados en animales o in vitro.  </p>
<p> Para esta revisión narrativa se seleccionaron todos los artículos que contenían información relevante sobre el tema, con fecha de publicación entre el 2006 y el 2016. Este filtro se seleccionó en vista de que la resistencia a equinocandinas es un tema reciente, con la comercialización de la primera equinocandina, Caspofungina, en el 2001. En total se incluyeron 15 artículos en esta revisión.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Desarrollo</title>
<p>Opciones de tratamiento en infecciones causadas por aislamientos de <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas.</p>
<sec>
<title>Aumento de dosis de equinocandinas</title>
<p> Las equinocandinas presentan un excelente perfil de toxicidad, incluso al ser administradas en altas dosis (mayor de 8 mg/kg/día) (14). Por ello, se consideró la posibilidad de que el aumento de dosis fuera la solución frente a la creciente resistencia de <italic>Candida</italic> a las equinocandinas.  </p>
<p> Inicialmente, por medio de un estudio realizado en ratones neutropénicos (26), se encontró que en la infección diseminada por <italic>C. glabrata</italic> con susceptibilidad reducida a caspofungina eran efectivas elevadas dosis de caspofungina y anidulafungina en reducir la carga fúngica renal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref26">26</xref>). Sin embargo, en otro estudio llevado a cabo en ratones inmunocompetentes con infección invasiva por <italic>C. albicans</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref27">27</xref>) se observó una respuesta inconsistente frente a las altas dosis de caspofungina (1-10 mg/kg) en los ratones infectados con <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a caspofungina, y se encontró de 0% a 12% de sobrevida en los ratones infectados con especímenes más virulentos, y 80% en los ratones con especímenes menos virulentos. Debido a ello, se consideró que la respuesta a las altas dosis de caspofungina probablemente estaba relacionada con el grado de virulencia del espécimen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref27">27</xref>).  </p>
<p>  La respuesta antifúngica al aumento de dosis de equinocandinas también se evaluó frente a <italic>C. glabrata</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref28">28</xref>). Se realizaron experimentos in vitro e in vivo, que incluyeron 4 especímenes clínicos de <italic>C. glabrata</italic> de tipo silvestre y, adicionalmente, un espécimen de referencia, sensible a caspofungina, y dos especímenes resistentes a equinocandinas con mutaciones conocidas en el <italic>FKS</italic>. Los especímenes resistentes a equinocandinas fueron altamente virulentos y ninguna dosis fue efectiva en los ratones infectados con los especímenes resistentes. Se confirmó así que el aumento de dosis no mejora la eficacia de la caspofungina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref28">28</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nuevas combinaciones</title>
<sec>
<title>Combinación con farnesol</title>
<p> Farnesol, un compuesto orgánico, químicamente clasificado como sesquiterpeno alcohol (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">figura 1</xref>), se ha investigado por aumentar la susceptibilidad a antibióticos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref29">29</xref>). Adicionalmente, Hornby y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref30">30</xref>) demostraron que este compuesto es sintetizado por <italic>C. albicans</italic> y se cree que en ciertas concentraciones puede ser citotóxico, al comprometer la síntesis de ergosterol, pues afecta la membrana celular fúngica y genera apoptosis celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref31">31</xref>). </p>
<p> Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, un estudio realizado por Cordeiro y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref32">32</xref>) evaluó los efectos del farnesol en la susceptibilidad antifúngica de especímenes de <italic>Candida</italic> con resistencia in vitro a anfotericina B, azoles y caspofungina. Mediante el uso de especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic>, <italic>C. parapsilosis</italic> y <italic>C. tropicalis</italic>, se demostró que al combinar el antifúngico con farnesol o preincubar los especímenes a concentraciones subinhibitorias de farnesol, se reducía la concentración inhibitoria mínima (CIM). La sinergia generada por la combinación de caspofungina con farnesol está posiblemente explicada por los efectos deletéreos en la pared celular causados por la caspofungina y la alteración de la biosíntesis de ergosterol producida por el farnesol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref32">32</xref>). </p>
<p> Por tanto, se demostró sinergia al combinar el farnesol con medicamentos antifúngicos, lo cual mejora el efecto farmacológico en especímenes previamente resistentes. Sin embargo, aún hacen falta estudios que profundicen en el efecto y el mecanismo de acción del farnesol.</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf2">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Estructura química de los nuevos fármacos con propiedades antifúngicas.</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 1 Estructura química de los nuevos fármacos con propiedades antifúngicas.</alt-text>
<graphic orientation="portrait" position="anchor" xlink:href="231054933012_gf1.png"/>
<attrib>Tomado de: a) <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/445070">http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/445070</ext-link>; b) <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/353481#section=Top">https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/353481#section=Top</ext-link>; c) <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/16719049#section=Top">https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/16719049#section=Top</ext-link>; d) <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/25229651#section=Top">https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/25229651#section=Top</ext-link>; e) <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jam.12493/epdf">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jam.12493/epdf</ext-link>; f) <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2292552/">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2292552/</ext-link>; g) <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.nature.com/ja/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ja201689a.html">http://www.nature.com/ja/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ja201689a.html</ext-link>
</attrib>
</fig>
</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Combinación con diclofenaco</title>
<p> Se desconoce el mecanismo de acción de este medicamento antinflamatorio no esteroideo en los hongos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref34">34</xref>). En el ámbito clínico, el diclofenaco se utiliza ampliamente como analgésico, debido a su acción sobre las isoenzimas ciclooxigenasas COX-1 y COX-2, las cuales se encuentran involucradas en la producción de prostaglandinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref35">35</xref>). Curiosamente, se ha observado que <italic>C. albicans</italic> también produce prostaglandinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref33">33</xref>) y que con la administración de inhibidores de la ciclooxigenasa disminuye esta producción y la viabilidad de la levadura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref36">36</xref>). Por esa razón, se ha considerado que al ser un medicamento que actúa en la vía de las prostaglandinas podría ser una estrategia potencial terapéutica antifúngica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref37">37</xref>).  </p>
<p> Al combinar diclofenaco y caspofungina en especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic>, Bink y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref34">34</xref>) encontraron que <italic>in vitro</italic> los especímenes que crecían en presencia de diclofenaco tenían mayor susceptibilidad a la caspofungina. <italic>In vivo</italic>, los ratones, con un catéter subcutáneo, infectados con <italic>C. albicans</italic> y tratados con diclofenaco y caspofungina, tenían menos biopelícula de <italic>Candida</italic> que aquellos tratados únicamente con diclofenaco o caspofungina. Incluso lo anterior se demostró en el espécimen con mutación resistente a caspofungina. De esta manera se evidenció la sinergia entre el diclofenaco y la caspofungina, que probablemente esté relacionada con el aumento de la permeabilidad de las membranas celulares de <italic>C. albicans</italic>, inducido por el diclofenaco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref34">34</xref>).  </p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Combinación con posaconazol</title>
<p> El posaconazol es un triazol de amplio espectro. Actúa inhibiendo la lanosterol 14-α demetilasa, enzima necesaria para la síntesis de ergosterol, por lo que altera la membrana fúngica y el crecimiento celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref38">38</xref>). La estructura química del posaconazol difiere de la del fluconazol y del voriconazol, al interactuar con un dominio adicional de la enzima sobre la que este actúa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref39">39</xref>), por lo que podría ser efectivo en los hongos resistentes a fluconazol y voriconazol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref40">40</xref>). Actualmente es el derivado de azoles más potente y se considera que su combinación con otros grupos de antifúngicos podría tener un efecto terapéutico favorable (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref41">41</xref>).  </p>
<p> Chen y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref42">42</xref>) evaluaron la combinación del posaconazol con una equinocandina, al estudiar el efecto del posaconazol y la caspofungina en especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic>. El estudio demostró sinergia <italic>in vitro</italic> entre estos dos antifúngicos, incluso en los especímenes que tenían resistencia a fluconazol o a las equinocandinas. Sin embargo, no mostraron la misma eficacia <italic>in vivo</italic> sobre especímenes de origen clínico, pues fueron efectivas únicamente contra un espécimen que tenía resistencia a equinocandinas generada mediante ingeniería genética (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref42">42</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Combinación con inhibidores de la quitina-sintasa:
nicomicina Z</title>
<p> El tratamiento con equinocandinas inhibe la síntesis de β (1, 3)-glucano, polisacárido componente de la pared celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref43">43</xref>). Se ha observado que, <italic>in vitro</italic>, las equinocandinas estimulan la formación de quitina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref44">44</xref>), otro polisacárido de la pared celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref45">45</xref>), el cual reduce la eficacia de las equinocandinas e induce la formación de estructuras nuevas, como septos, que impiden que la célula muera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref47">47</xref>). Consecuentemente, se ha considerado la posibilidad de combinar las equinocandinas con inhibidores de la quitina-sintasa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref44">44</xref>) como estrategia terapéutica frente a infecciones fúngicas.</p>
<p> Walker y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref44">44</xref>) demostraron que un inhibidor de la quitina-sintasa, la nicomicina Z (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">figura 1</xref>), fue capaz de impedir la formación de septos nuevos in vitro en especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic> y presentó un fuerte efecto sinérgico al combinarse con caspofungina, incluso frente a especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic> con resistencia a equinocandinas.  </p>
<p> El potencial de los inhibidores de la quitina-sintasa para actuar sobre la pared celular fúngica tiene especial importancia, debido al papel fundamental que la pared celular cumple en la viabilidad de los hongos y su ausencia en las células de los mamíferos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref48">48</xref>). Lo anterior hace que esta combinación farmacológica sea potencialmente útil frente a la resistencia a equinocandinas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Combinación con MGCD290 (inhibidor de
la histona-deacetilasa Hos 2)</title>
<p> Las histonas-deacetilasas (HDAC) son enzimas que eliminan el grupo acetilo de los residuos de lisinas en las histonas. Actúan regulando la expresión de genes e influyendo en la proliferación, movilidad y muerte celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref49">49</xref>). Los inhibidores de estas enzimas generan citotoxicidad e inducen la apoptosis celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref49">49</xref>), por lo que se cree que la modulación de la expresión de genes por medio de la inhibición de las HDAC pueden ser una alternativa terapéutica frente a las infecciones fúngicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref51">51</xref>). </p>
<p> MGCD290 es un antifúngico nuevo que actúa inhibiendo de la enzima fúngica Hos2, y fue desarrollado por MethylGene, Inc. (Montreal, Quebec, Canadá) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref52">52</xref>). Pfaller evaluó su actividad <italic>in vitro</italic> al combinarlo con azoles, encontrando sinergia con fluconazol frente a 87% de los especímenes de <italic>Candida</italic> y actividad frente a muchos de los especímenes resistentes a azoles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref51">51</xref>).  </p>
<p> Con respecto a la combinación del MGCD290 con las equinocandinas, Pfaller y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref51">51</xref>) realizaron un estudio in vitro con <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas. Por medio de 30 especímenes de <italic>Candida</italic>, se demostró sinergia o sinergia parcial en 30-36,7% de las muestras tratadas con equinocandinas y MGCD290, la cual fue independiente de la presencia de una mutación en los genes <italic>FKS</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref51">51</xref>). </p>
<p> A pesar de que es un hallazgo alentador e interesante, estudios clínicos de fase II que evaluaron la administración conjunta de fluconazol y MGCD290 en pacientes con vulvovaginitis por <italic>Candida</italic> no permitieron demostrar la eficacia del MGCD290 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref52">52</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Combinación con ciclosporina A</title>
<p> La ciclosporina A es un producto natural encontrado en hongos que ha demostrado actividad antifúngica. Actúa inhibiendo la actividad de la calcineurina, una fosfatasa que se encuentra tanto en levaduras como en seres humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref53">53</xref>), con un papel importante en la sobrevida fúngica y en la respuesta frente al estrés (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref54">54</xref>).  </p>
<p> La calcineurina está involucrada en varias funciones fisiológicas de <italic>C. albicans</italic> incluyendo la morfogénesis, la biosíntesis de la pared, la resistencia antifúngica y la virulencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref55">55</xref>), por lo que los inhibidores de la calcineurina podrían ser útiles en el tratamiento de estas infecciones.  </p>
<p> El efecto de la combinación de ciclosporina A con antifúngicos fue evaluado en un estudio <italic>in vitro</italic> utilizando la cepa estándar de <italic>C. albicans</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref55">55</xref>). Se demostró que al combinar 62,5 μg/ml de ciclosporina A con caspofungina disminuía la CIM de la caspofungina, e incluso se revirtió la tolerancia en las cepas que presentaban un valor elevado de CIM para caspofungina. Sin embargo, aún faltan estudios <italic>in vivo</italic> para ampliar el conocimiento sobre la efectividad de la ciclosporina A y su mecanismo de acción como antifúngico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref55">55</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nuevos compuestos</title>
<sec>
<title>Agente E1210: inhibidores de la biosíntesis
del glicofosfatidilinositol fúngico</title>
<p> Este agente de amplio espectro (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">figura 1</xref>), conocido por su acción inhibitoria sobre la inositol acetiltransferasa del hongo, altera la maduración de las proteínas ancladas al glicosilfosfatidilinositol (GPI) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref56">56</xref>) y, por tanto, impide que actúen como adhesinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref57">57</xref>) para los hongos que entran a las células (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref58">58</xref>).  </p>
<p> Su efectividad en el tratamiento de candidiasis resistente a equinocandinas fue inicialmente demostrada por Pfaller y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref59">59</xref>), por medio de un estudio <italic>in vitro</italic>, al encontrar una CIM inferior o igual a 0,12 µg/ml en especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic>, <italic>C. glabrata</italic> y <italic>C. tropicalis</italic>, resistentes a caspofungina. Adicionalmente, demostraron que en las anteriores especies de <italic>Candida</italic> la CIM era mucho menor, comparada con la de fluconazol, posaconazol, voriconazol y caspofungina. </p>
<p> De igual manera, el estudio realizado por Wiederhold y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref60">60</xref>) comprobó que, además de actuar sobre los especímenes resistentes, también era mejor que la caspofungina sobre los especímenes de tipo silvestre de <italic>C. albicans</italic>. Como ventaja adicional, este agente permitiría evitar las interacciones medicamentosas, debido a que su mecanismo de acción es únicamente sobre los hongos y no en las células humanas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Derivado de enfumafungina SCY 078 (previamente
conocido como MK 3118)</title>
<p> La enfumafungina es un glucósido triperpenoide aislado de la fermentación de <italic>Hormonema</italic> sp. que ha mostrado actividad frente a <italic>Candida</italic> y <italic>Aspergillus</italic>, al inhibir la β-(1, 3)-glucano-sintasa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref62">62</xref>). </p>
<p> La actividad del SCY 078, derivado semisintético de la enfumafungina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">figura 1</xref>), frente a especímenes de <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas, fue evaluada por Jiménez-Ortigosa y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref63">63</xref>). Por medio de un estudio <italic>in vitro</italic> con 95 especímenes de <italic>Candida</italic> que incluían las especies <italic>albicans</italic>, <italic>glabrata</italic>, <italic>dubliniensis</italic>, <italic>krusei</italic>, <italic>parapsilosis</italic> y <italic>tropicalis</italic> se demostró que el SCY 078 era activo frente a la mayoría de especímenes con resistencia a equinocandinas mediadas por mutaciones FKS, especialmente frente a <italic>C. albicans</italic> y <italic>C. glabrata</italic>. Por ejemplo, la CIM para caspofungina en el 50% de los especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic> resistentes a equinocandinas fue ≥ 2 mg/l, comparado con la CIM para SCY 078 del 70% de especímenes, que fue menor de 0,5 mg/l (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref63">63</xref>). </p>
<p> La actividad de SCY 078 frente a especímenes de <italic>Candida</italic> con resistencia a equinocandinas con mutaciones <italic>FKS</italic> conocidas fue confirmada por Pfaller y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref64">64</xref>), quienes notaron que, además de tener una potencia similar a la caspofungina frente a todas las especies de <italic>Candida</italic> evaluadas, el SCY 078 era 8 veces más potente que la caspofungina frente a los especímenes de <italic>C. glabrata</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref64">64</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nueva equinocandina MIG0310</title>
<p> Descrita por primera vez por Masaphy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref65">65</xref>), la MIG0310 es una nueva equinocandina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">figura 1</xref>) creada con base en la actividad anti-<italic>Candida</italic> del espécimen del hongo <italic>Fusarium brachygibbosum</italic>. En un estudio clínico que incluía especímenes clínicos de <italic>C. albicans</italic>, <italic>C. tropicalis</italic>, <italic>C. krusei</italic> y <italic>C. glabrata</italic> se demostró actividad de MIG0310 frente a los especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic> con CIM ≤ 3,1 µg/ml (65).  </p>
<p> A pesar de que actualmente no hay mucha información sobre esta nueva equinocandina, no se descarta que en el futuro pueda utilizarse como una alternativa de tratamiento frente a las infecciones por <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nueva equinocandina CD101</title>
<p> La equinocandina CD101 es un nuevo antifúngico de larga vida media (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref66">66</xref>). Su mecanismo de acción es similar al de las equinocandinas actualmente aprobadas, el cual es la inhibición de la glucano-sintasa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref67">67</xref>) y adicionalmente presenta una modificación en su estructura (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">figura 1</xref>) que le confiere mejores propiedades farmacocinéticas y potencialmente mejor perfil de seguridad en comparación con otros medicamentos de la misma clase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref68">68</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref69">69</xref>). Este nuevo fármaco ha sido evaluado en soluciones de plasma de rata, mono, perro y humano y ha demostrado mayor estabilidad que la anidulafungina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref70">70</xref>). También ha demostrado potente actividad <italic>in vitro</italic> contra <italic>Candida</italic> y <italic>Aspergillus</italic>, incluyendo algunos especímenes de <italic>Candida</italic> resistentes a equinocandinas y azoles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref68">68</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref71">71</xref>).  </p>
<p> Por tanto, este nuevo fármaco de amplio espectro ha demostrado tener gran potencial, no solo en el tratamiento de candidiasis invasiva, sino también en el manejo de la emergente resistencia frente a las equinocandinas actuales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref68">68</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Arilamidina T 2307</title>
<p>La arilamidina T 2307 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">figura 1</xref>) es un compuesto nuevo (Toyama
Chemical Co.) que se está estudiando <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo</italic> por su actividad antifúngica de amplio espectro, la cual es
especialmente potente contra <italic>Candida albicans</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref72">72</xref>). Además, Wiederhold y colaboradores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref73">73</xref>) demostraron
que la arilamidina T2307 tiene actividad <italic>in
vitro</italic> contra los especímenes de <italic>C. albicans</italic>
resistentes a equinocandinas (CIM50 ≤ 0,008 µg/ml). Y en el modelo murino
se observó un aumento de la sobrevida y disminución de la cantidad de levaduras
presentes en los riñones de los ratones que fueron tratados con T-2307, comparados
con aquellos tratados con caspofungina. Este compuesto
está actualmente en fase I de estudios clínicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref74">74</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Otros medicamentos</title>
<sec>
<title>Agentes inmunomoduladores</title>
<p> Entre los agentes inmunomoduladores se encuentran las citocinas, los factores estimulantes de colonias, los anticuerpos y las vacunas. Citocinas como el interferón gamma (INF-γ) son útiles para la prevención y el manejo de infecciones fúngicas como la candidiasis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref75">75</xref>). El INF-γ potencia los efectos citotóxicos de macrófagos y neutrófilos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref76">76</xref>), además de estimular la respuesta de los linfocitos Th1 en las candidiasis invasivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref77">77</xref>). En segundo lugar, los factores estimulantes de colonias, como el factor estimulante de colonias granulocíticas y el factor estimulante de colonias de granulocitos y monocitos, participan en la activación de los neutrófilos potenciando su actividad antifúngica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref78">78</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref79">79</xref>). Por su parte, los anticuerpos han sido estudiados ampliamente ante la candidiasis invasiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref80">80</xref>). El anticuerpo monoclonal anti-Hsp 90 inhibe el desarrollo de la resistencia frente a los antifúngicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref81">81</xref>), recibe el nombre de Efungumab y actúa al unirse a la proteína Hsp 90, previniendo un cambio conformacional necesario para la viabilidad del hongo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref82">82</xref>). El anti-Hsp90 tiene actividad intrínseca contra <italic>Candida</italic> spp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref83">83</xref>) y exhibe sinergia <italic>in vitro</italic> al combinarse con caspofungina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref75">75</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref84">84</xref>). </p>
<p> Por último, las vacunas tienen dos mecanismos de acción: unas generan la activación de Th1 y Th17 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref85">85</xref>), lo cual desencadena la respuesta inflamatoria con el reclutamiento de macrófagos, citocinas y neutrófilos en el sitio de infección (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref86">86</xref>). Este tipo de vacuna se basa en la respuesta inmune del paciente frente al hongo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref86">86</xref>). Por otro lado, las vacunas mediadas por anticuerpos actúan por la activación del complemento, neutralizando factores como las adhesinas, e incluso desencadenando directamente la muerte celular fúngica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref85">85</xref>).  </p>
<p> Los agentes inmunomoduladores han demostrado su efecto al estimular la respuesta inmune frente a las infecciones por <italic>Candida</italic> en los pacientes inmunocompetentes. Adicionalmente, agentes como las vacunas basadas en la respuesta humoral podrían mejorar el manejo de las infecciones fúngicas en los pacientes inmunocomprometidos, al restaurar su respuesta inmune (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref85">85</xref>). Por ello, a pesar de que aún se requieren estudios que evalúen su respuesta frente a <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas, los agentes inmunomoduladores podrían representar una terapia adyuvante al actuar en la respuesta inmune del huésped (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref75">75</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Comentarios y conclusión</title>
<p> Las infecciones por <italic>Candida</italic> representan una problemática de salud pública, debido a su creciente incidencia y la aparición de especies multirresistentes en el ámbito hospitalario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref19">19</xref>). Además, su resistencia frente a las equinocandinas continúa aumentando y el incremento de dosis parece no ser la solución (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref28">28</xref>), por lo que es indispensable buscar nuevas alternativas terapéuticas, además de establecer estrategias de gerenciamiento de antimicóticos de la misma forma que se recomienda para los antibióticos. En este artículo se revisaron compuestos que se encuentran en estudio, con propiedades antifúngicas frente a especies de <italic>Candida</italic> resistente a equinocandinas. Sin embargo, la mayoría han sido evaluados únicamente <italic>in vitro</italic> o en modelos murinos y muy pocos se encuentran en estadios avanzados de investigación. Entre los presentados, cabe resaltar que el agente E1210 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref87">87</xref>), la nueva equinocandina CD101 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref88">88</xref>) y el SCY078 (MK3118) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref89">89</xref>) se encuentran en fase II de estudios clínicos y que el compuesto MGCD 290 fue suspendido durante los estudios de fase II para vulvovaginitis por <italic>Candida</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref90">90</xref>). Adicionalmente, compuestos como el diclofenaco, que ha presentado sinergia con las equinocandinas, generan un interés adicional, debido a que ya se encuentran farmacéuticamente disponibles y con perfiles de seguridad ya establecidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231054933012_ref91">91</xref>).  </p>
<p> Estos compuestos, aún novedosos en la literatura médica, representan la oportunidad de generar medicamentos con mejores resultados, que permitan superar la creciente resistencia actual de las infecciones de <italic>Candida</italic> frente a las equinocandinas.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list>
<title>Referencias</title>
<ref id="231054933012_ref1">
<label>1.</label>
<mixed-citation>1. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, Benjamin D K, Calandra TF, Edwards JE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(5):503-35. doi: 10.1086/596757.</mixed-citation>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Pappas</surname>
<given-names>PG</given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname>Kauffman</surname>
<given-names>CA</given-names>
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