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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="marcador">2310</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title specific-use="original" xml:lang="es">Universitas Medica</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher" xml:lang="es">Univ. Med.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0041-9095</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2011-0839</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Pontificia Universidad Javeriana</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>
<country>Colombia</country>
<email>revistascientificasjaveriana@gmail.com</email>
</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="art-access-id" specific-use="redalyc">231061132008</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed61-1.epig</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artículos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es">Control epigenético en la transición epitelio-mesénquima</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Epigenetic Control of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Bernal Forigua</surname>
<given-names>Camila</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Otálora</surname>
<given-names>Beatriz Andrea</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>González</surname>
<given-names>Daniel Mauricio</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Bermúdez</surname>
<given-names>Litzy Gisella</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Montoya</surname>
<given-names>Christian Fernando</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Valderrama</surname>
<given-names>Andrea</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Oñate</surname>
<given-names>Cristina</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Niederbacher</surname>
<given-names>Nicolás</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Pinzón</surname>
<given-names>María José</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Camero</surname>
<given-names>Carlos</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>García</surname>
<given-names>Francisco Javier</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Grajales</surname>
<given-names>Diana</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Sánchez Velásquez</surname>
<given-names>Paula</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Castillo</surname>
<given-names>Cathalina</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Cañas Arboleda</surname>
<given-names>Alejandra</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Rojas Moreno</surname>
<given-names>Adriana Patricia</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corresp1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16"/>
<email>rojas-adriana@javeriana.edu.co</email>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de doctorado, Universidad Nacional de Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de doctorado, Universidad Nacional de Colombia</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff9">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff10">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff11">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff12">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de la Maestría en Ciencia Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de la Maestría en Ciencia Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff13">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff14">
<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Estudiante de Bacteriología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff15">
<institution content-type="original">Profesora del Departamento de Medicina Interna, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Profesora del Departamento de Medicina Interna, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff16">
<institution content-type="original">Profesora del Instituto de Genética Humana / Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Profesora del Instituto de Genética Humana / Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá</institution>
<country country="CO">Colombia</country>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="corresp1"><sup>a</sup> Correspondencia: <email>rojas-adriana@javeriana.edu.co</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
<season>Enero-Marzo</season>
<year>2020</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>61</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<history>
<date date-type="received" publication-format="dd/mm/yyyy">
<day>21</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2019</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted" publication-format="dd/mm/yyyy">
<day>25</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2019</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<ali:free_to_read/>
<license xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<ali:license_ref>https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ali:license_ref>
<license-p>Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 Internacional.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>El proceso de transición epitelio-mesénquima (TEM) permite que una célula epitelial, de manera temporal, adquiera un fenotipo mesenquimal como respuesta a un estímulo interno o externo. Este proceso se caracteriza por la activación y represión de genes involucrados en diferentes vías de señalización asociadas con migración, invasión, apoptosis, entre otros. En este proceso, la epigenética cumple un papel fundamental, pues comprende cuatro mecanismos: metilación de ADN, modificación covalente de histonas, ARN no codificantes (ARNnc) y complejos remodeladores de la cromatina, que regulan la expresión de un gen sin alterar su secuencia. En esta revisión de tema los autores describen los principales mecanismos epigenéticos involucrados en la regulación de la expresión de genes que se activan y reprimen a lo largo del proceso TEM.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The mesenchymal epithelial transition (MET) process allows a temporary epithelial cell to acquire a mesenchymal phenotype in response to an internal or external stimulus. This process is characterized by the activation and repression of genes involved in different signaling pathways associated with migration, invasion and apoptosis, among others. In this process epigenetics plays a fundamental role. Epigenetics comprises four mechanisms: DNA methylation, covalent modification of histones, non-coding RNAs (RNACs) and chromatin remodeling complexes, which regulate the expression of a gene without altering its sequence. In this topic review, the authors describe the main epigenetic mechanisms involved in the regulation of the expression of genes that are activated and repressed throughout the TEM process.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave</title>
<kwd>epigenética</kwd>
<kwd>diferenciación celular</kwd>
<kwd>embriogénesis</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>epigenetics repression</kwd>
<kwd>epithelial-mesenchymal transition</kwd>
<kwd>transcription genetic</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="1"/>
<table-count count="1"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="119"/>
</counts>
<custom-meta-group>
<custom-meta>
<meta-name>Cómo citar</meta-name>
<meta-value>Bernal Forigua C, Otálora BA, González DM, Bermúdez LG, Montoya CF, Valderrama A, et al. Control epigenético en la transición epitelio-mesénquima. Univ. Med. 2020;61(1). <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed61-1.epig">https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed61-1.epig</ext-link>
</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
<custom-meta>
<meta-name>Conflictos de interés</meta-name>
<meta-value>Los autores declaran no tener conflictos de interés.</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introducción</title>
<p>El proceso de transición epitelio-mesénquima (TEM) permite que, de manera temporal, una célula epitelial adquiera un fenotipo mesenquimal como respuesta a un estímulo interno o externo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref1">1</xref>). Este proceso se caracteriza por la activación y represión de genes involucrados en diferentes vías de señalización asociadas con migración, invasión, apoptosis, entre otros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref1">1</xref>). La TEM está relacionada tanto con procesos fisiológicos normales durante la embriogénesis y reparación de tejidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref2">2</xref>) como con procesos patológicos como el cáncer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref3">3</xref>). El proceso TEM se divide en tres fases: células no migratorias, células premigratorias y células migratorias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref4">4</xref>).</p>
<p>La regulación de la TEM se ha visto asociada a mecanismos epigenéticos, debido a la naturaleza reversible de este proceso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref5">5</xref>). La regulación epigenética se basa en la adición reversible de modificaciones estables que no afectan la secuencia de ADN, pero que sí alteran la dinámica transcripcional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref6">6</xref>). Los cuatro mecanismos epigenéticos conocidos son: metilación de dinucleótidos CpG, modificaciones de histonas, ARN no codificantes y los complejos remodeladores de la cromatina. Estos mecanismos han demostrado ser fundamentales en el proceso de activación y represión de genes asociados a la adquisición del fenotipo mesenquimal durante la TEM (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref8">8</xref>). En el presente artículo de revisión se describen los principales mecanismos epigenéticos asociados a la regulación positiva y negativa de marcadores epiteliales y mesénquimales, descritos por su participación en el proceso de TEM (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref1">1</xref>), y cómo cada modificación afecta su función normal asociándolo a patologías como el cáncer (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf1">figura 1</xref>).</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf1">
<label>
<bold>Figura 1</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title><bold>Epigenética y transición epitelio-mesénquima</bold></title>
<p>A) La transición epitelio-mesénquima (TEM) permite la conversión de una célula epitelial a una con fenotipo mesenquimal. Este proceso ocurre durante eventos fisiológicos como la embriogénesis y la cicatrización; sin embargo, su activación aberrante se ha descrito en condiciones patológicas como el cáncer y la fibrosis. Las células epiteliales se caracterizan por presentar una polaridad apicobasal y uniones celulares (fase no migratoria). Posteriormente, cuando las células pierden tanto la polaridad y, en consecuencia, las uniones célula-célula, se afirma que la célula cursa por la etapa premigratoria. El inicio de TEM ocurre con la pérdida de las características epiteliales y la represión transcripcional de genes que son reconocidos como marcadores de este fenotipo (<italic>E-cadherina</italic>, <italic>citoqueratinas 8-18-19</italic> y <italic>claudinas 4-2</italic>). Así mismo, de manera simultánea ocurre la activación transcripcional de genes involucrados con el fenotipo mesenquimal (<italic>N-caderina</italic>, <italic>vimentina</italic> y <italic>metaloproteinasas 2-7-9</italic>). Finalmente, con la adquisición de un fenotipo mesenquimal, las células adquieren la capacidad de movilidad, lo que se denomina <italic>etapa migratoria</italic>. Los mecanismos epigenéticos como lo son: la modificación covalente de histonas, la metilación del ADN y los
ARN no codificantes orquestan la regulación de la expresión de genes que se activan y reprimen concomitantemente en las tres etapas del proceso. B) Genes epiteliales transcripcionalmente activos durante le etapa no migratoria: <italic>CDH1</italic> (<italic>E-cadherina</italic>), <italic>KRT8</italic> (<italic>citoqueratina 8</italic>), <italic>KRT18</italic> (<italic>citoqueratina 18</italic>), <italic>KRT19</italic> (<italic>citoqueratina 19</italic>), <italic>CLDN4</italic> (<italic>claudina 4</italic>) y <italic>CLDN2</italic> (<italic>claudina 2</italic>). Genes mesenquimales transcripcionalmente activos durante le etapa migratoria: <italic>CDH2</italic> (<italic>N-cadherina</italic>), <italic>VIM</italic> (<italic>vimentina</italic>), <italic>MMP-2</italic> (<italic>metaloproteinasa 2</italic>), <italic>MMP-7</italic> (<italic>metaloproteinasa 7</italic>) y <italic>MMP-9</italic> (<italic>metaloproteinasa</italic> <italic>9</italic>).</p>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 1 Epigenética y transición epitelio-mesénquima</alt-text>
<graphic orientation="portrait" position="anchor" xlink:href="231061132008_gf2.png"/>
<attrib>Fuente: modificado de Skrypek et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref119">119</xref>).</attrib>
</fig>
</p>
<p>En resumen, en la TEM se ha descrito que, en la primera etapa, las células tienen un fenotipo no migratorio
asociado a moléculas de adhesión, a la estabilidad de membrana basal y a la
polaridad celular, mediado por los complejos PAR, Crumbs
y Scribble, y por la expresión de <italic>E-cadherina</italic>, <italic>β-catenina</italic>, <italic>c-Met</italic>, <italic>HGF</italic>, <italic>IGF1R</italic>, <italic>EGF</italic>
y <italic>selectinas</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref10">10</xref>). En la segunda etapa, las células
pierden la polaridad ápico-basal y se separan de la
matriz extracelular, reprimiendo genes de adhesión celular como <italic>E-cadherina</italic>, <italic>ocludinas</italic> y <italic>claudinas</italic>, y
activando genes mesenquimales como <italic>N-cadherina</italic>, <italic>vimentina</italic> y <italic>metaloproteasas</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref11">11</xref>).
De igual manera, en esta etapa, el factor de crecimiento TGF-β induce cascadas
de señalización dependientes o no de las proteínas SMAD, las cuales tienen como
blancos otros factores de transcripción como SNAIL, SLUG, ZEB y bHLH, que inhiben la expresión del gen de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref13">13</xref>). En paralelo, la expresión del factor
de transcripción TWIST activa la expresión de <italic>N-cadherina</italic>, <italic>RAS</italic> y <italic>Scribble</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref14">14</xref>). En la tercera etapa, las células adquieren la capacidad de
traspasar la membrana basal y desplazarse, tras la activación de las vías de
las GTPasas de rho: RhoA,
Rac1 y Cdc42, que favorecen la migración celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref15">15</xref>). Durante esta etapa es importante la expresión del factor de
transcripción SNAIL1 para promover la expresión de metaloproteinasas
para la degradación de la matriz extracelular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref5">5</xref>).
En esta revisión se abordan los mecanismos epigenéticos
que regulan la expresión de los marcadores epiteliales y mesenquimales
más importantes en el proceso de TEM.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mecanismos epigenéticos</title>
<sec>
<title>Metilación de ADN</title>
<p>La
metilación del ADN es una marca epigenética que en vertebrados se lleva a cabo
en dinucleótidos CpG, casi exclusivamente. Esta modificación puede ser heredada
a través de múltiples divisiones celulares y regula procesos como la expresión
de genes, el silenciamiento de elementos transponibles, la impronta genómica y
la inactivación del cromosoma X (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref17">17</xref>). Las enzimas responsables de este
mecanismo se pueden clasificar en <italic>escritoras</italic>,
<italic>intérpretes</italic> y <italic>borradoras</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref18">18</xref>). Las <italic>escritoras</italic>,
como las DNMT (<italic>DNA-methyltransferase</italic>),
se encargan de metilar la citosina a 5mC (<italic>5-methyl-cytosine</italic>), ya sea <italic>de novo</italic>, por las DNMT3a y DNMT3b, o para mantener los patrones de
metilación en las divisiones celulares por la DNMT1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref18">18</xref>). Las <italic>intérpretes</italic>, como las MeCPs (<italic>Methyl-CpG
binding proteins</italic>) reconocen el sitio del genoma metilado, reclutan
complejos modificadores de histonas y generan cambios en la cromatina y así
reprimen la expresión del gen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref19">19</xref>). Las <italic>borradoras</italic>,
por último, como la TET (<italic>ten-eleven Translocation</italic>), catalizan la conversión de 5mC a 5mhC (<italic>5-methyl-hydroxy-cytosine</italic>),
el cual sigue siendo estable y permite la unión con las MeCP y su oxidación a
5fC (<italic>5-formyl-cytosine</italic>) y,
finalmente, a 5cC (5-carboxyl-cytosine),
los cuales son menos estables y son fácilmente eliminados por la enzima TDG (<italic>Thymine-DNA glycosylase</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref19">19</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Modificación
covalente de histonas</title>
<p>La modificación covalente de histonas en los dominios globulares afectan directamente la transcripción y estabilidad del nucleosoma, pues desempeñan un papel clave en la regulación de la cromatina para el control de la transcripción, reparación, replicación y recombinación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref20">20</xref>). La modificación de histonas actúa por medio de dos mecanismos principales: uno que involucra modificaciones que influyen de forma directa la estructura general de la cromatina y el segundo modificaciones que regulan la unión de moléculas efectoras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref20">20</xref>).</p>
<p>Son varios los mecanismos que intervienen en estas modificaciones y se caracterizan, en general, por ser procesos muy dinámicos, entre estos la acetilación de las lisinas, regulada por la acción opuesta de dos grupos enzimáticos: las enzimas histonas acetil transferasas (HAT), que actúan como coactivadoras de la transcripción y neutralizan la carga positiva de la lisina debilitando las interacciones entre las histonas-ADN, y las enzimas histonas deacetilasas (HDAC), que se oponen a los efectos de las HAT, revirtiendo la acetilación de la lisina, acción que restaura la carga positiva de la lisina, estabilizando la arquitectura de la cromatina y funcionando así como represoras transcripcionales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref22">22</xref>). Por otro lado, la metilación de histonas ocurre principalmente en las cadenas laterales de lisinas y argininas; sin embargo, esta no altera la carga de la proteína de la histona, pero sirve como sitio de reconocimiento de otras proteínas de tipo coactivador o corepresor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref21">21</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>ARN no codificantes</title>
<p>El genoma humano tiene, al
menos, el 2% de la capacidad para codificar proteínas. Sin embargo, se ha
descrito que más del 70% se transcribe; por
tanto, la mayor parte del transcriptoma humano
consiste en ARN no codificante (ARNnc) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref23">23</xref>). El transcriptoma
no codificante se conceptualiza en términos del tamaño de los transcritos no
codificantes, que van desde los miARN y piARN más cortos de menos de 40 pb
hasta los snoARN de tamaño medio (60-300 bp), los ARN potenciadores (eARN;
50-2000 pb) y los ARN no codificantes largos (lncARN) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref25">25</xref>).
Estos ARN no codificantes participan en la regulación de diferentes procesos
celulares, como la apoptosis, la regulación génica, el procesamiento del ARN y
la proliferación; además de tener un papel clave y dinámico como modificadores epigenéticos, al influir en procesos de metilación, demetilación y modificación de histonas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref24">24</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Marcadores epiteliales</title>
<sec>
<title>E-cadherina</title>
<p>La adhesión célula-célula es fundamental en todos los procesos de morfogénesis durante el desarrollo embrionario y en el adulto para el mantenimiento de los tejidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref26">26</xref>). Las cadherinas son un grupo de glicoproteínas transmembranales, cuya función es la adhesión célula-célula dependiente de iones calcio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref27">27</xref>). En las cadherinas clásicas o de tipo I se incluye la E-cadherina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref28">28</xref>), una molécula de adhesión codificada por el gen <italic>CDH1</italic>, el cual contiene 16 exones (100 kb) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref29">29</xref>) y se localiza en el cromosoma 16 (16q22.1) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref30">30</xref>).</p>
<p>Tal como se describió, una de las principales características del proceso TEM es la represión transcripcional de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf1">figura 1</xref>). Durante este proceso represivo pueden intervenir mecanismos epigenéticos como la modificación covalente de histonas, la metilación del ADN y la regulación mediante ARNnc.</p>
<p>La represión transcripcional de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> está regulada por los factores de transcripción ZEB1 y SNAIL, los cuales se unen directamente a su región promotora (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref31">31</xref>). ZEB1 es un factor de transcripción importante durante la embriogénesis y la diferenciación celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref32">32</xref>). Durante TEM, ZEB1 puede reprimir directamente la transcripción de <italic>CDH1</italic> uniéndose a las secuencias E-box de su promotor y reclutando DNMT (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref33">33</xref>) y proteínas modificadoras de histonas como HDAC1 y HDAC2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref34">34</xref>). De igual manera, se ha descrito que ZEB1 puede también reclutar enzimas deacetilasas de tipo SIRT1 al promotor de <italic>CDH1</italic> mediando su represión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref35">35</xref>).</p>
<p>SNAIL forma parte de un grupo de tres factores de transcripción conocidos por su capacidad de reprimir <italic>E-cadherina</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref36">36</xref>). SNAIL puede suprimir directamente la expresión de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> uniéndose a E-boxes del promotor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref37">37</xref>) y cooperar con histonas metiltransferasas (HMT) y DNMT (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref38">38</xref>). Tal es el caso de la enzimas metiltransferasas G9A y Suv39H1, que mediante la deposición de las modificaciones HK9Me y H3K9Me3 participan en la represión transcripcional de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref39">39</xref>). De igual manera, se ha descrito que SNAIL puede reclutar HDAC1 y HDAC2, y el correpresor Sin3A al promotor de <italic>CDH1</italic>, para silenciarlo por medio de la deacetilación de las histonas H3 y H4 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref40">40</xref>).</p>
<p>El promotor de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> también puede ser regulado por metilación de su región promotora. Este evento ha sido confirmado en líneas celulares de cáncer de seno, en las cuales se ha establecido, incluso, una relación entre el grado de hipermetilación de su promotor con un fenotipo más agresivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref41">41</xref>).</p>
<p>Por otro lado, se ha descrito que la expresión de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> puede ser regulada también por la presencia de ARN no codificantes. En particular, se ha reportado el impacto de algunos micro-ARN (miARN) que alteran la actividad de factores de transcripción, como NF-κB1, ZEB1, ZEB2, EP300 y PTTG1, y consecuentemente inhiben la expresión de <italic>CDH1</italic> en contexto de la TEM. Algunos de los miARN mejor descritos son: el miARN-9 y el miARN-10b, cuya sobreexpresión es inducida por TWIST y está correlacionada con la presencia de fenotipos con baja expresión de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> y elevada capacidad migratoria. Por su parte, la expresión de miARN’s-31 está relacionada con mal pronóstico en cáncer oral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref42">42</xref>). Además, la sobreexpresión de miARN pertenecientes a la familia miARN-200 se asocia con el fenotipo invasivo de múltiples cánceres, pues alteran la expresión de los inhibidores principales de <italic>E-cadherina</italic>; ZEB1 y ZEB2. Otros miARN implicados en la progresión de las fases de la TEM incluyen a miARN-205 y miARN-655 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref42">42</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Citoqueratinas</title>
<p>El citoesqueleto en la célula eucariota consiste de un entramado tridimensional de diversas proteínas que, además de proveer un soporte para la célula, tienen un papel importante en la organización de las estructuras internas celulares e interviene en el transporte y tráfico intracelular y la división celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref43">43</xref>). Los filamentos intermedios son uno de los cuatro tipos de proteínas que conforman la estructura del citoesqueleto, los cuales a su vez consisten en su mayoría por citoqueratinas (CK), un grupo de proteínas con estructura altamente conservada que se expresan preferentemente en células epiteliales en forma de heteropolímeros entre una CK básica (tipo II) y una ácida (tipo I) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref44">44</xref>).</p>
<p>Las CK son en la actualidad marcadores importantes empleados para la identificación de varios tumores y determinación de su origen, debido a que su expresión es tejido-específica, conservada, prácticamente invariable y se encuentra asociada a un fenotipo epitelial. Durante el proceso de TEM, su expresión, en la mayoría de los casos, se encuentra reprimida; sin embargo, como se desarrolla en algunas patologías tumorales se ha descrito su expresión aberrante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref45">45</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Citoqueratina 8</title>
<p>Es una CK de tipo II de células epiteliales simples, la cual, si bien en principio fue asociada con una función meramente estructural, a la fecha en numerosos reportes se ha demostrado que está implicada en procesos de transducción de señales, diferenciación celular, desarrollo del fenotipo de multirresistencia a drogas en cáncer de mama, evasión apoptótica en cáncer nasofaríngeo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref46">46</xref>) y defectos en la función del HLA-I en células de carcinoma metastásico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref47">47</xref>). El gen KRT8 se encuentra en el locus 12q13.13 y su expresión se da como heterodímero con la CK18 y CK19 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref45">45</xref>). Se ha reportado en al menos quince tejidos, en especial colon, duodeno, intestino delgado y estómago (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref48">48</xref>).</p>
<p>La expresión de las CK se caracteriza por ser altamente conservada; sin embargo, en distintos tipos de cánceres epiteliales se ha evidenciado una marcada alteración sobre los perfiles de expresión de la CK8, pues en la mayoría de ellos hay un aumento de la expresión, mientras en algunos, por el contrario, disminuye (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref46">46</xref>). A la fecha, se han reportado tres mecanismos responsables de mediar esta alteración sobre los niveles de expresión de la CK8 en cáncer: mediante la generación de mutaciones en el gen <italic>KRT8</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref46">46</xref>); mediante el control por los factores de transcripción SNAIL y SLUG, que actúan regulando de manera negativa el gen e induciendo simultáneamente la expresión de <italic>Vimentina</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref49">49</xref>), y mediante metilación del ADN (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref50">50</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Citoqueratina 18</title>
<p>Es una CK de tipo I y usualmente se asocia con la CK8,
pues constituyen el par
primario de CK presentes en las células
epiteliales simples (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref51">51</xref>). Aunque son
importantes para el mantenimiento de la morfología celular y la integridad
mecánica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref52">52</xref>), la unión CK8/CK18 ejerce
una función reguladora en la protección de la barrera placentaria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref53">53</xref>), resistencia a la apoptosis inducida por
el factor de necrosis tumoral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref54">54</xref>) y
toxicidad en hepatocitos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref55">55</xref>). El gen que
codifica la CK18 se ubica en 12q13.13 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref56">56</xref>)
y su regulación se ha asociado a procesos epigenéticos
mediados por miARN como miR-200 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref57">57</xref>). La
pérdida de la expresión de las CK8/CK18 promueve la invasión y motilidad de
células cancerosas, características asociadas al proceso de TEM (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref58">58</xref>). La CK18 desempeña un papel activo
regulando la expresión de SNAIL y SLUG, factores de transcripción responsables
de la regulación negativa de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> en las etapas iniciales del TEM inducida por
el factor de crecimiento beta 1 (TGF-β1) en células epiteliales de mama (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref59">59</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Citoqueratina 19</title>
<p>Pertenece al grupo de queratinas tipo I de células epiteliales simples y
estructuralmente posee un dominio central helicoidal α altamente conservado y carece de
dominio de cola no helicoidal C-terminal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref60">60</xref>).
La CK19 ejerce funciones estructurales y de señalización, aunque su
silenciamiento en un modelo murino
demuestra que es prescindible, posiblemente, debido a su remplazo funcional por
la CK18 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref61">61</xref>). El gen que codifica
la CK19 es <italic>KRT19</italic>, el cual se encuentra en el cromosoma 17q21.2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref62">62</xref>). Durante el proceso de TEM, la CK19,
conjuntamente con CK8, CK18, E-cadherina y otros
marcadores epiteliales, disminuyen sus niveles de expresión concomitante con el
aumento de marcadores mesenquimales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref31">31</xref>). La represión transcripcional
de CK19 se ha visto mediada por el factor de transcripción SLUG, descrito en
estudios donde la sobreexpresión de SLUG en células MDA-MB-468 inhibió la
expresión de CK8 y CK19; adicionalmente, la pérdida de función mediante siRNA de SLUG en células BT-549 aumentó los niveles de mRNA de las CK8 y CK19 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref49">49</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Claudinas</title>
<p>Las claudinas son una familia de proteínas encargadas de formar uniones celulares estrechas; además, permiten el paso de iones y solutos por el espacio paracelular. Estas son expresadas tanto en epitelio como en endotelio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref64">64</xref>). La proteína CLDN4 (Claudina 4) es codificada por el gen <italic>CLDN4</italic>, ubicado en el cromosoma 7q11.23. En cáncer, la CLDN4 está asociada con la TEM y un mal pronóstico, especialmente en cáncer gástrico, de páncreas y ovario, debido a que se ha evidenciado una expresión aberrante en lesiones precursoras de malignidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref65">65</xref>). La CLDN4 regula positivamente las metaloproteinasas 2 y 9, que permiten la degradación de la matriz extracelular favoreciendo la movilidad y capacidad invasiva de las células tumorales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref66">66</xref>). </p>
<p>La expresión de CLDN4 se ha visto reprimida en células uroteliales, porque se asocia con hipermetilación. Este fenómeno es algo característico de las neoplasias en este tipo de tejido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref67">67</xref>). En la literatura también se ha evidenciado regulación mediante la modificación covalente de histonas bivalentes, siendo represora la metilación de la lisina 27 de la histona H3 (H3K27me3) y activadora de la metilación de la lisina 4 de la histona H3 (H3K4me3). Sin embargo, estos no son los únicos mecanismos que determinan la expresión de la <italic>claudina 4</italic>. Se ha encontrado que la regulación negativa de la histona metiltransferasa EZH2 en la lisina 27 de la histona H3 no necesariamente implica un aumento en la expresión del gen CLDN 4 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref68">68</xref>). </p>
<p>La proteína CLDN2 (claudina 2) es codificada por el gen <italic>CLDN2</italic>, ubicado en el cromosoma Xq22.3. Esta proteína también tiene como función formar uniones estrechas celulares, pero principalmente en el intestino. Por esto, la sobreexpresión de CLDN2 se ha visto asociada con la presencia de cáncer colorrectal en diferentes estadios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref69">69</xref>). La sobreexpresión de CLDN2 se ha relacionado con la hipermetilación de las islas CpG en el gen <italic>PTEN</italic>, pues se ha visto que es posible reprimir la sobreexpresión de <italic>CLDN2</italic> en adenocarcinomas de pulmón utilizando inhibidores de las DNMT (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref70">70</xref>). También se han observado mecanismos asociados a la modificación covalente de histonas. En cuanto a <italic>CLDN2</italic>, se ha descrito que algunas histonas deacetilasas (HDAC) participan en su transcripción aberrante en varios tipos de cáncer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref67">67</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Marcadores mesénquimales</title>
<sec>
<title>N-cadherina</title>
<p>La N-cadherina o también llamada cadherina 2 (CDH2) es la cadherina clásica de esta superfamilia de proteínas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref71">71</xref>). La N-cadherina, junto con β-catenina y αN-catenina, forma el complejo cadherina/catenina, que une el ambiente extracelular al citoesqueleto de la actina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref72">72</xref>). Esta proteína cumple funciones durante la embriogénesis, la cardiogénesis y la carcinogénesis. Durante la embriogénesis está principalmente involucrada en la formación de cartílago y hueso, la somitogénesis en el mesodermo y el proceso de alternancia de cadherinas durante la gastrulación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref73">73</xref>). Este último consiste en cambios de la expresión de la <italic>E</italic> y <italic>N-cadherina</italic>; la E-cadherina es regulada a la baja en la línea primitiva mientras las células realizan la TEM al tiempo que concomitantemente expresan <italic>N-cadherina</italic> en el mesodermo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref74">74</xref>). </p>
<p>En el embrión temprano es expresada en el mesodermo y el notocordio; mientras que en el embrión tardío está presente en tejido neural, lentes y otros tejidos epiteliales, además de músculo cardiaco y esquelético, primordio de la nefrona, algunos tejidos mesenquimales, mesotelio y células de la línea primordial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref75">75</xref>). En el desarrollo cardiaco está implicada en la diferenciación del mesodermo precardiaco, el establecimiento de la asimetría izquierdo-derecha, morfogénesis de los bucles cardiacos y la trabeculación de la pared del miocardio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref76">76</xref>). </p>
<p>En cáncer y metástasis, la N-cadherina está relacionada con la adquisición de un fenotipo invasivo en las células de origen epitelial a través del proceso de alternancia de cadherinas; este no solo ocurre bajo condiciones fisiológicas durante el desarrollo embrionario, sino que también tiene lugar en esta condición patológica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref76">76</xref>). En cáncer de próstata se ha evidenciado cómo promueve la TEM y la expresión de características de células madre a través de señalización por ErbB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref77">77</xref>). Se ha visto que su expresión está asociada con la adquisición del fenotipo TEM en líneas celulares de cáncer de pulmón resistentes a erlotinib (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref78">78</xref>). De igual manera, el proceso de regulación a la alta de <italic>N-cadherina</italic> resultó en la pérdida de adhesión intracelular y movilidad incrementada en células de carcinoma pancreático (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref79">79</xref>). </p>
<p>En relación con la expresión encontrada en embriones y adultos, se puede establecer que se expresa <italic>de novo</italic> en células de carcinoma de seno, próstata, vejiga, tiroides y de células escamosas. Presenta una sobreexpresión en melanoma, leucemia, carcinoma gástrico, cordomas y rabdomiosarcoma; regulación al alta en leiomioma, mesotelioma y tumores adrenales y regulación a la baja en osteosarcoma, carcinoma ovárico, glioblastoma y carcinoma de células renales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref76">76</xref>). Se ha establecido que el proceso patogénico de alternancia de cadherinas resulta en la sobreexpresión de <italic>N-cadherina</italic> y está asociado a la inducción del fenotipo móvil en la transición epitelio-mesénquima, haciendo de esta proteína un marcador mesenquimal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref80">80</xref>). </p>
<p>En cuanto a la estructura, la N-cadherina es una proteína transmembranal de un solo paso con un dominio extracelular conformado por cinco repeticiones homólogas (EC1-EC5) que están unidas por puentes de iones de calcio (Ca<sup>2+</sup>). En el dominio citoplasmático se une con la catenina p120 cerca de la membrana plasmática; a la β-catenina, cerca del extremo terminal C, y esta última está unida a la αN-catenina, que está anclada al citoesqueleto de actina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref81">81</xref>). </p>
<p>El gen que codifica la proteína es el <italic>CDH2</italic> con una longitud de 250 kb, compuesto por 16 exones y está ubicado en la posición 18q12.1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref71">71</xref>). La secuencia presenta homología con otras especies, como los ratones, y entre las cadherinas de la misma familia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref80">80</xref>). Con relación a la regulación epigenética de este gen durante el proceso de TEM, se han propuesto diferentes vías. La primera es por la sobreexpresión de la histona metiltransferasa, que puede di o trimetilar la histona H3 en la lisina 36 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref82">82</xref>). Esta se une al promotor del factor de transcripción TWIST e incrementa la metilación en H3K36m2, resultando en su activación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref31">31</xref>). TWIST, por su parte, induce la regulación a la baja de <italic>E-cadherina</italic> que está involucrada en los contactos entre células e incrementa la expresión de marcadores mesénquimales como la fibronectina, la vimentina, la αSMA y la N-cadherina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref83">83</xref>). La segunda vía implica a la histona metiltransferasa SET8, que metila la lisina 20 de la histona H4 y regula la transcripción tanto al alta como a la baja (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref84">84</xref>). En TEM, SET8 tiene dos funciones: la primera es con relación a la activación y al aumento de expresión de la N-cadherina, a través de la interacción física entre SET8 y TWIST, que promueve su reclutamiento al promotor de <italic>CDH2</italic> induciendo H4K20m1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref31">31</xref>); la segunda es con relación a la misma metilación en el promotor de <italic>CDH1</italic>, que reprime su expresión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref31">31</xref>). </p>
<p>Otra vía estudiada en tumores epiteliales es la activación de la expresión de N-cadherina, dependiente de la adhesión celular mediada por la integrina β1. Se ha descrito que su expresión en células epiteliales nulas para la integrina β1 provoca la modulación de la expresión de CDH2 y la inducción de la transformación epitelio-mesénquima (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref85">85</xref>). Por último, un microambiente hipóxico está relacionado con la activación del factor HIF-1α que activa genes relacionados con TEM (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref86">86</xref>). Su expresión activa la expresión de HDAC3, que deacetila H3K4 en genes mesenquimales como <italic>vimentina</italic> y <italic>N-cadherina</italic> y en genes epiteliales como <italic>E-cadherina</italic> y <italic>placoglobina</italic>. La posterior activación de los genes mesenquimales se da por el reclutamiento adicional del complejo WDR5/COMPASS, que aumenta los niveles de H3K4m2 en los promotores de estos genes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref31">31</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Vimentina</title>
<p>La vimentina es una proteína de filamentos intermedios tipo III, responsable de mantener la forma e integridad de la célula y estabilizar las interacciones citoesqueléticas, como el posicionamiento, el anclaje de orgánulos, la adhesión célula-célula y célula-sustrato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref87">87</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref88">88</xref>). Se expresa en células mesenquimales normales para mantener la integridad del tejido. Además, participa en la tumorogénesis, la TEM, la diseminación metastásica del cáncer, la regulación de las principales vías de transducción de señales y la migración e invasión celular. </p>
<p>Es una proteína de 57 kD y 466 aminoácidos con un domino α-helicoidal con extremos de N y C-terminal (no α-helicoidal), denominados <italic>cabeza (77 residuos)</italic> y <italic>cola (61 residuos)</italic>, respectivamente. Puede formar homopolímeros y heteropolímeros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref89">89</xref>), cuya formación enrollada en espiral ayuda en la formación de polímeros altamente estables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref90">90</xref>). Esta proteína es codificada por un gen de copia única y ubicado en el brazo corto del cromosoma 10, específicamente en 10p13 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref91">91</xref>). </p>
<p>Una característica de las células que adquieren el fenotipo mesenquimal durante el proceso de TEM lo constituye la sobreexpresión de la vimentina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref92">92</xref>). Uno de sus mecanismos de regulación génica es mediante su fosforilación por una cinasa activada por p21 (PAK), que lleva a la reorganización estructural de la vimentina y, en consecuencia, la de los microfilamentos en las células (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref93">93</xref>). Un segundo mecanismo de regulación de la vimentina se lleva a cabo por el complejo β-catenina/TCF. Generalmente, la β-catenina forma complejos con la E-cadherina, contribuyendo a la adhesión célula-célula. Bajo ciertas circunstancias, los niveles de β-catenina aumentan y esta se trasloca al núcleo, donde actúa como un coactivador transcripcional al unirse con factores de transcripción de la familia TCF/LEF-1. El complejo β-catenina/TCF se une 468 pb corriente arriba del sitio de inicio de la transcripción del promotor de la vimentina, llevando a la activación del gen y el aumento del potencial invasivo de las células tumorales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref94">94</xref>). </p>
<p>Por otro lado, la metilación del gen que codifica para la vimentina se produce con mayor frecuencia en los carcinomas colorrectales avanzados, por lo que se ha sugerido su uso como marcador de diagnóstico para la detección y el control del carcinoma colorrectal en muestras de suero y heces (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref95">95</xref>). Además, se ha demostrado que el factor de transcripción ZBP-89 recluta la histona deacetilasa 1 (HDAC1) al promotor de vimentina, lo que conduce a una disminución en su expresión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref96">96</xref>). Este efecto fue revertido por la presencia de trichostatin A, un inhibidor de HDAC1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref97">97</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Metaloproteinasas</title>
<p>Las metaloproteinasas de matriz (MMP) son proteínas pertenecientes a la familia de las endopeptidasas dependientes de zinc e intervienen en procesos de organogénesis, cicatrización, involución uterina, inflamación y desarrollo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref98">98</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref99">99</xref>). Su función principal es la degradación de la matriz extracelular (MEC), razón por la cual están íntimamente relacionadas con procesos metastásicos, pues la degradación de membranas basales y la subsecuente exposición de péptidos crípticos de la MEC estimulan la migración y la invasión celular. Así mismo, son capaces de modificar distintas moléculas de adhesión celular —como las integrinas— y activar distintas citocinas por acción proteolítica como TGF-β, el cual induce la transición epitelio-mesénquima (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref99">99</xref>), o moléculas como el factor de crecimiento endotelial vascular, involucrado en la angiogénesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref100">100</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref101">101</xref>). </p>
<p>Actualmente, se conocen 26 MMP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref100">100</xref>) y según su estructura se clasifican en cinco grupos: colagenasas, gelatinasas, estromalisinas, matrilisinas y metaloproteinasas asociadas a membrana (MT-MMP) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref98">98</xref>). Además de estos grupos, existe una familia adicional de MMP, llamadas ADAMS, proteínas de membrana pertenecientes a la familia de las desintegrinasas, que están asociadas a procesos de espermatogénesis, neurogénesis, metástasis, liberación de citocinas y factores de crecimiento como TGFα y EGF (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref1">1</xref>). </p>
<p>Debido a sus capacidades de degradar la matriz y de secretar moléculas que favorecen la migración e invasión celular, el estudio de la regulación de la expresión de los genes que codifican MMP es importante en la investigación del cáncer. Por un lado, se ha demostrado en células de cáncer de mama que MMP-2 puede ser regulado por la fibronectina, una proteína abundante de la MEC que no solo regula la adhesión, migración y proliferación de las células en un microambiente normal, sino que también induce enriquecimiento de H3K4Me3, exponiendo así la región promotora del gen <italic>MMP-2</italic>, y lleva al aumento de su expresión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref102">102</xref>). </p>
<p>Por otro lado, se ha descrito la regulación de la expresión de <italic>MMP-2</italic> por miARN, como sucede con miR-874, que reprime su expresión. Por otro lado, también se ha descrito la acción de ciertos lncARN como mediadores del desarrollo y la progresión del cáncer. Un ejemplo de lo anterior es el lncARN XLOC_008466, un oncogén que se sobreexpresa en cáncer de pulmón de células no pequeñas y que se une directamente a miR-874, lo cual produce un aumento de la expresión de <italic>MMP-2</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref103">103</xref>). </p>
<p>De igual manera, MMP-7 también se ha visto implicada en procesos de cáncer de mama, donde su expresión en fibroblastos del frente invasivo y del centro del tumor se encuentra relacionada de manera significativa con el aumento de su tamaño (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref104">104</xref>). En procesos tumorales, los niveles de MMP-7 son incrementados y regulados por los factores de transcripción AP-1 y STAT3 en presencia de catecolaminas. El factor AP-1 desempeña un papel esencial en la transcripción de <italic>MMP-7</italic>, en conjunto con los factores de transcripción AD-1 y PEA3. Las señales que regulan la expresión del gen <italic>MMP-7</italic> por citocinas son dependientes del factor AP-1, debido a que un aumento rápido y transitorio de este produce un aumento en la actividad génica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref105">105</xref>). </p>
<p>La MMP-9 o gelatinasa B es una colagenasa que degrada la MEC y libera factores de crecimiento; ambos procesos están implicados en la progresión y migración de células cancerosas. Esta metaloproteinasa se encuentra regulada principalmente a nivel transcripcional, donde moléculas activadoras como AP-1 y Nf-kB se unen al promotor del gen de esta metaloproteinasa para activar su expresión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref99">99</xref>). También es regulada por mecanismos epigenéticos como los miARN y las modificaciones de histonas. En el estudio de Cock-Rada et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref99">99</xref>) se evaluó la regulación de la expresión de MMP-9 por acción de la SMYD3, una histona metiltransferasa que induce la di y la trimetilación de H3K4, que así mismo induce la activación o supresión de la transcripción, y que se encuentra sobreexpresada en la proliferación tumoral en carcinoma colorectal, hepatocelular y mamario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref106">106</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref107">107</xref>). </p>
<p>Por otro lado, las MMP-3 y las MMP-10, conocidas como estromelisinas uno y dos, respectivamente, son expresadas por fibroblastos y células epiteliales que las secretan al espacio extracelular, donde participan en procesos biológicos como el desarrollo de la glándula mamaria, la inmunidad y la curación de heridas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref63">63</xref>). La MMP3 procesa sustratos bioactivos como el factor 1 derivado de células estromales, la E-cadherina y prointerleucina-1 beta (IL-1β); también tiene la función de activar otras proMMP, como proMMP-9 y procolagenasas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref108">108</xref>). Niveles elevados de MMP-3 se han relacionado con la progresión de la enfermedad de Crohn, artritis reumatoide, enfermedades coronarias y cáncer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref101">101</xref>). La expresión del gen <italic>MMP-3</italic> es regulado por factores de transcripción específicos tras la exposición a citocinas inflamatorias como IL-1, que participa en la hipometilación del promotor y activa distintas proteínas, como la activadora-1 (AP-1), las proteínas C/EBP y los factores de transcripción de la familia ETS (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref109">109</xref>). Otros estímulos externos provocan la coexpresión o correpresión de MMP-3, como factores de crecimiento, glucocorticoides y retinoides que desencadenan la expresión de genes tempranos que codifican proteínas de señalización que luego pueden unirse al promotor de <italic>MMP-3</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref108">108</xref>). </p>
<p>En lo referente a la regulación de la expresión de <italic>MMP-10</italic>, al igual que la MMP-3, las interleucinas son importantes factores en la progresión del cáncer, como sucede con la exposición de las células de linfoma a IL-4, IL-6 e IL-13 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref110">110</xref>). Además, se ha descubierto la existencia de señalización para la expresión de <italic>MMP10</italic> vía intercelular con células endoteliales a través de la interacción entre la integrina LFA-1 y su ligando principal ICAM-1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref110">110</xref>). Un alto nivel de expresión de MMP-10 se ha relacionado con distintos tipos de cáncer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref111">111</xref>), por lo que se ha propuesto a MMP-10 como un potencial biomarcador en el diagnóstico de dicha enfermedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref112">112</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref113">113</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref114">114</xref>). </p>
<p>En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="gt1">tabla 1</xref> se muestra el resumen de los mecanismos epigenéticos involucrados con la regulación de los principales genes epiteliales y mesenquimales.</p>
<p>
<table-wrap id="gt1">
<label>Tabla 1</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Factores de transcripción y mecanismos epigenéticos reguladores del proceso de transición
epitelio-mesénquima</bold>
</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Tabla 1 Factores de transcripción y mecanismos epigenéticos reguladores del proceso de transición
epitelio-mesénquima</alt-text>
<graphic orientation="portrait" position="anchor" xlink:href="231061132008_gt2.png"/>
</table-wrap>
</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discusión</title>
<p>La evidencia reciente ha demostrado que los mecanismos epigenéticos están involucrados y son fundamentales en el proceso de TEM, porque activan y reprimen la actividad transcripcional en distintos contextos del desarrollo, como la gastrulación, donde es responsable de orquestar de forma simultánea procesos de proliferación, migración, diferenciación celular e invasión para la adecuada implantación y desarrollo del embrión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref115">115</xref>); al igual que procesos como regeneración de tejidos y cicatrización de heridas, que generan nuevas células que migran y promueven la reepitelización. Sin embargo, se encuentra también asociada a eventos patológicos como la inflamación persistente, que lleva a una TEM aberrante que favorece la presencia de fibrosis en los tejidos, y el cáncer, donde favorece la enfermedad metastásica por invasividad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref116">116</xref>).</p>
<p>Estos distintos contextos de activación de la TEM comparten varios mecanismos moleculares, como los descritos a lo largo del texto, en que las células epiteliales pierden la adhesión célula-célula por represión transcripcional del gen de la E-cadherina, acompañado de un aumento de la expresión de marcadores mesenquimales como N-cadherina y vimentina, además de un cambio de la polaridad epitelial; todo esto asociado a un aumento de la expresión de factores de transcripción como SNAIL, TWIST y ZEB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref115">115</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref116">116</xref>).</p>
<p>La compleja heterogeneidad y dinámica de la TEM resulta de una mezcla diversa de poblaciones celulares que se someten a este proceso a diferentes velocidades y en varias etapas, dominadas por la biología subyacente del tumor primario y su evolución continúa a lo largo del curso clínico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref117">117</xref>). Ello lleva a la búsqueda de dianas terapéuticas que permitan manipular este estado en cada contexto; por tanto, un desafío para el desarrollo de nuevos medicamentos.</p>
<p>Las razones precisas por las que este programa altamente controlado se activa de forma aberrante son variadas y desconocidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref117">117</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref118">118</xref>). Sin embargo, se ha propuesto que estadios intermedios están influenciados por cambios epigenéticos y caracterizados por la presencia de modificaciones de histonas alteradas en loci clave como <italic>CDH1</italic> y miR-200. Se sabe, por ejemplo, que modificadores de histonas como los del grupo polycomb, donde se cataliza la trimetilación de la lisina 27, durante la TEM, son reclutados en el promotor de <italic>CDH1</italic> por el factor de transcripción SNAIL1, que reprime la expresión de E-cadherina. Además, este mismo complejo es responsable de la trimetilación y el silenciamiento de miR-200, lo que ha dado lugar a la presencia de quimiorresistencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref117">117</xref>).</p>
<p>Por tanto, la reversibilidad de las alteraciones epigenéticas y la importancia de la metilación del ADN y la acetilación de histonas en la progresión tumoral han dado lugar al desarrollo de inhibidores farmacológicos para la terapia epigenética con <italic>epidrugs</italic>. Un claro ejemplo de lo anterior lo constituye el uso de inhibidores de HDAC como vorinostat, mocetinostat y ácido valproico como agentes anti-TEM, mediante su intervención en promotores de los genes <italic>SNAIL</italic> y <italic>TWIST</italic>, que como se describió anteriormente son fundamentales en el proceso de la TEM (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref117">117</xref>). De igual manera, se han descrito inhibidores de las DNMT que pueden intervenir en este proceso inhibitorio de la TEM (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref116">116</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref117">117</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref118">118</xref>).</p>
<p>La TEM ha emergido en los últimos años como un importante impulsor de la quimiorresistencia, relacionada con la plasticidad fenotípica en cáncer. En esta revisión describimos cómo influye la epigenética en el proceso de TEM y cómo esta podría llevar a la generación de nuevas terapias o terapias combinadas que puedan favorecer un mejor pronóstico para el paciente. Sin embargo, hasta ahora la Administración de Medicamentos y Alimentos de Estados Unidos (FDA) ha aprobado varios tipos de estos medicamentos, como los inhibidores de las DNMT y las HDAC para algunos tipos de cáncer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref116">116</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref117">117</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref118">118</xref>), donde el papel fundamental de los fármacos epigenéticos ha sido la sensibilización de la quimioterapia, la radioterapia y la modulación del sistema inmunológico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="231061132008_ref117">117</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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