Why does that Lawyer Smile? Gender Discrimination in Legal Education
Published
Jun 28, 2024
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Giovanna Patricia Uribe Vásquez
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3502-3088
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3502-3088
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Abstract
Since entering the legal profession in the 19th century, women have experienced gender-based discrimination. In the 1970’s, the number of women students in law schools and lawyers increased, which is called feminization of the profession. This phenomenon has led researchers to question whether women have been agents of change for the law, it’s practice, and women’s rights. In this research article, using analytical autoethnography I show moments of my personal history as a woman, lawyer, professor, and dean and how the writing of this article transformed me, as I tried to answer those questions.
Keywords
Legal Education, Gender Stereotypes, Gender Discrimination, Feminization of the legal profession, Analytic Autoethnographyeducación jurídica, estereotipos de género, discriminación de género, feminización de la profesión jurídica, autoetnografía analítica
References
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Fiona Kay & Elizabeth Gorman, Women in the Legal Profession, 4 Annual Review of Law and Social Science 299-332 (2008), https://doi.org/10.2979/indjglolegstu.20.2.1071
Fiona Kay & John Hagan, The Persistent Glass Ceiling: Gendered Inequalities in the Earnings of Lawyers, 46 The British Journal of Sociology 279-310 (1995).
Frances L. Hoffmann & Jayne E., Stake, Feminist Pedagogy in Theory and Practice: An Empirical Investigation, 10 NWSA Journal 79-97 (1998).
Frances E. Olsen, El sexo del derecho. Identidad femenina y discurso jurídico 24-43 (Biblos, 1990).
Frank S. Bloch, International Clinics and the Global Clinical Movement, 26 Maryland Journal of International Law 1 (2011), https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1561&context=mjil
Helena Alviar G. & Isabel C. Jaramillo S., Feminismo y crítica jurídica: el análisis distributivo como alternativa crítica al legalismo liberal (Siglo del Hombre Editores, 2012)
Herma Hill Kay, The Future of Women Law Professors, 77 Iowa Law Review 5-18 (1991).
Isabel C. Jaramillo S., La crítica feminista al derecho, en El género en el derecho: ensayos críticos, (Quito, Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos, Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos, 2009).
James C. Scott, Los dominados y el arte de la resistencia (Era, 2007).
Janet Taber, Marguerite Grant, Mary Huser, Norman Rise, James Sutton & Clarence Wong Gender, Legal Education, and the Legal Profession: An Empirical Study of Stanford Law Students and Graduates, 40 Stanford Law Review 1209-1259 (1988).
Joan Brockman & Dorothy E. Chunn, “A new order of things”: women’s entry into the legal profession in British Columbia, 60 Advocate 385-395 (2002).
Joan M. Krauskopf, Touching the elephant: perceptions of gender issues in nine law schools, 44 Journal of Legal Education 311-340 (1994).
Judith Resnik, Ambivalence: the resiliency of legal culture in the United States, 45 Stanford Law Review 1525-1546 (1993).
Julieta Lemaitre Ripoll, El derecho como conjuro: fetichismo legal, violencia y movimientos sociales (Siglo del Hombre Editores, 2009).
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Karla Mayorga, Igualdad de género en la educación superior en el siglo XXI, 18 Palermo Business Review 137-144 (2018).
Kate Eastman, Sex Discrimination in the Legal Profession, 27 University of New South Wales Law Review 866-876 (2004).
Katharine T. Bartlett, Feminist Perspectives on the Ideological Impact of Legal Education Upon the Profesión, 72 North Carolina Law Review 1259 (1994).
L. Amede Obiora, Neither Here nor There: Of the Female in American Legal Education, 21 Law & Social Inquiry 2 (1996).
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Marsha Garrison, Brian Tomko & Ivan Yip, Succeeding in Law School: A Comparison of Women’s Experiences at Brooklyn Law School and the University of Pennsylvania, 3 Michigan Journal of Gender & Law 515 (1995).
Mary Jane Mossman, The Past as Prologue: Women and the Law (Osgoode Hall Law School of York University, 1990).
Mary Jane Mossman, The First Women Lawyers: A Comparative Study of Gender, Law and the Legal Professions (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006).
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Morrison Torrey, Yet Another Gender Study? A Critique of the Harvard Study and a Proposal for Change, 13 William & Mary Journal of Race, Gender, and Social Justice 795-820 (2007).
Nadine J. Kaslow, My Life as a Female Leader in the Academy: Lessons Learned, 43 Women & Therapy 18-43 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2019.1684680
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Nancy S. Erickson, Sex Bias in Law School Courses: Some Common Issues, 38 Journal of Legal Education 101-116 (1988).
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Rebeca Cook & Simone Cusack, Estereotipos de género perspectivas legales transnacionales, Andrea Parra, trad. (Profamilia, 2009), https://www.law.utoronto.ca/utfl_file/count/documents/reprohealth/estereotipos-de-genero.pdf
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Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Reflections on Women and the Legal Profession: A Sociological Perspective, 1 Harvard Women’s Law Journal 1 (1978).
Rosemary Auchmuty, Agenda for a Feminist Legal Curriculum, 23 Legal Studies 377-401 (2003), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-121X.2003.tb00220.x
Sara Ahmed, Introduction: Sexism - A Problem with a Name, 86 New Formations 5-13 (2015), https://doi.org/10.3898/NEWF.86.INTRODUCTION.2015
Sandra Janoff, The Influence of Legal Education on Moral Reasoning, 76 Minnesota Law Review 47 (1991).
Sandra Rodgers, Educating for Equality: The Meaning of Feminist Administration for Legal Education in Canada, en Elizabeth Sheehy & Sheila McIntyre, eds., Calling for Change: Women, Law, and the Legal Profession (University of Otawa Press, 2006).
Simonetta Polenghi, Striving for Recognition: the First Five Female Professors in Italy (1887-1904), 56 Paedagogica Historica 1-21 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2019.1690008
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Anne Witz, Professions and Patriarchy (Routledge, 1992).
Audrey Wolfson Latourette, Sex discrimination in the legal profession: historical and contemporary perspectives, 39 Valparaiso University Law Review 859 (2004).
Brooke D. Coleman, A Legal Fempire?: Women in Complex Civil Litigation, 93 Indiana Law Journal 617-651 (2018).
Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (Harvard University Press, 1993).
Carol Sanger, Feminism and Disciplinarity: The Curl of the Petals, 27 Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 225-68 (1993).
Carolina Moreno V., Los protocolos de violencias basadas en género de las universidades colombianas: apuestas pioneras en un contexto ausente de regulación, en Perspectivas de género en la educación superior: una mirada latinoamericana (Universidad Icesi, 2020).
Carolyn Ellis, Tony E. Adams & Arthur P. Bochner, Autoethnography: An Overview, 12 Forum: Qualitative Social Research 1 (2010), https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-12.1.1589
Carrie Menkel-Meadow, Portia in a Different Voice: Speculations on a Women’s Lawyering Process, 1 Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice (1985).
Carrie Menkel-Meadow, The Comparative Sociology of Women Lawyers: The “Feminization” of the Legal Profession, 24 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 897-918 (1986).
Carrie Menkel-Meadow, Exploring a Research Agenda of the Feminization of the Legal Profession: Theories of Gender and Social Change, 14 Law & Social Inquiry 289-319 (1989).
Catherine Carroll & April Brayfield, Lingering Nuances: Gendered Career Motivations and Aspirations of First-Year Law Students, 27 Sociological Spectrum 225-255 (2007), https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170701202709
Catharine A. MacKinnon, Feminismo, marxismo, método y Estado: una agenda para la teoría, en Crítica jurídica teoría y sociología jurídica en los Estados Unidos 163-92 (Universidad de los Andes, 2006).
Cecilia Morgan, An Embarrassingly and Severely Masculine Atmosphere: Women, Gender and the Legal Profession at Osgoode Hall, 1920’s-1960’s, 11 Canadian Journal of Law and Society (1996).
Christine Haight Farley, Confronting Expectations: Women in the Legal Academy, 8 Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 333-58 (1995).
Cynthia Fuchs Epstein, Women in Law (Basic Books, 1981).
Cynthia Fuchs Epstein, Women in the Legal Profession at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: Assessing Glass Ceilings and Open Doors, 49 Kansas Law Review 733-760 (2001).
Consejo Superior de la Judicatura, Estadísticas abogados/as inscritos/as en el Registro Nacional de Abogados - febrero 2019 (2019), https://www.ramajudicial.gov.co/documents/573203/25022673/Estadisticas+Abogados_URNA2019.pdf
Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice: Women and Law in Nineteenth Century Canada (Women’s Press, 1991).
Daniel Eduardo Bonilla M., El formalismo jurídico, la educación jurídica y la práctica profesional del derecho en Latinoamérica, en Derecho y pueblo mapuche: aportes para la discusión 259-302 (Universidad Diego Portales, 2013).
David Forrest, We’re here, we’re queer, and we’re not going shopping: Changing gay male identities in contemporary Britain, en Dislocating masculinity: Comparative ethnographies 109-122 (Taylor & Francis, 2016).
Dawn Z. Hodges, Showing Feelings and Emotions in the Workplace is not a Character Flaw,18 Dean and Provost (2017), https://doi.org/10.1002/dap.30322
Deborah L. Rhode, The Beauty Bias: The Injustice of Appearance in Life and Law (Oxford University Press, 2010).
Deborah L. Rhode, The Trouble with Lawyers (Oxford University Press, 2015).
Deborah L. Rhode, Women and Leadership (Oxford University Press, 2017).
Dorothy Hammond & Alta Jablow, Women in Cultures of the World (Bejamin-Cummings Publishing Company, 1976).
Duncan Kennedy, First Year Law Teaching as Political Action, 1 Journal of Law and Social Problems 45-57 (1980).
Duncan Kennedy, La educación legal como preparación para la jerarquía, 3 Academia, Revista sobre la Enseñanza del Derecho 117-147 (2000).
Elizabeth Gorman, Gender Stereotypes, Same-Gender Preferences, and Organizational Variation in the Hiring of Women: Evidence from Law Firms, 70 American Sociological Review 702-728 (2005), https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000408
Elizabeth Mertz, The Language of Law School: Learning to “Think like a Lawyer” (Oxford University Press, 2007).
Elizabeth M. Schneider, Lesbians, Gays and Feminist at the Bar: Translating Personal Experience into Effective Legal Argument - A Symposium, 10 Women’s Rights Law Reporter (1988).
Ethan Michelson, Women in the Legal Profession, 1970-2010: A Study of the Global Supply of Lawyers, 20 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 1071 (2013).
Fiona Kay & Elizabeth Gorman, Women in the Legal Profession, 4 Annual Review of Law and Social Science 299-332 (2008), https://doi.org/10.2979/indjglolegstu.20.2.1071
Fiona Kay & John Hagan, The Persistent Glass Ceiling: Gendered Inequalities in the Earnings of Lawyers, 46 The British Journal of Sociology 279-310 (1995).
Frances L. Hoffmann & Jayne E., Stake, Feminist Pedagogy in Theory and Practice: An Empirical Investigation, 10 NWSA Journal 79-97 (1998).
Frances E. Olsen, El sexo del derecho. Identidad femenina y discurso jurídico 24-43 (Biblos, 1990).
Frank S. Bloch, International Clinics and the Global Clinical Movement, 26 Maryland Journal of International Law 1 (2011), https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1561&context=mjil
Helena Alviar G. & Isabel C. Jaramillo S., Feminismo y crítica jurídica: el análisis distributivo como alternativa crítica al legalismo liberal (Siglo del Hombre Editores, 2012)
Herma Hill Kay, The Future of Women Law Professors, 77 Iowa Law Review 5-18 (1991).
Isabel C. Jaramillo S., La crítica feminista al derecho, en El género en el derecho: ensayos críticos, (Quito, Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos, Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos, 2009).
James C. Scott, Los dominados y el arte de la resistencia (Era, 2007).
Janet Taber, Marguerite Grant, Mary Huser, Norman Rise, James Sutton & Clarence Wong Gender, Legal Education, and the Legal Profession: An Empirical Study of Stanford Law Students and Graduates, 40 Stanford Law Review 1209-1259 (1988).
Joan Brockman & Dorothy E. Chunn, “A new order of things”: women’s entry into the legal profession in British Columbia, 60 Advocate 385-395 (2002).
Joan M. Krauskopf, Touching the elephant: perceptions of gender issues in nine law schools, 44 Journal of Legal Education 311-340 (1994).
Judith Resnik, Ambivalence: the resiliency of legal culture in the United States, 45 Stanford Law Review 1525-1546 (1993).
Julieta Lemaitre Ripoll, El derecho como conjuro: fetichismo legal, violencia y movimientos sociales (Siglo del Hombre Editores, 2009).
K. C. Worden, Overshooting the Target: A Feminist Deconstruction of Legal Education 34 The American University Law Review 1141-1156 (1985).
Karla Mayorga, Igualdad de género en la educación superior en el siglo XXI, 18 Palermo Business Review 137-144 (2018).
Kate Eastman, Sex Discrimination in the Legal Profession, 27 University of New South Wales Law Review 866-876 (2004).
Katharine T. Bartlett, Feminist Perspectives on the Ideological Impact of Legal Education Upon the Profesión, 72 North Carolina Law Review 1259 (1994).
L. Amede Obiora, Neither Here nor There: Of the Female in American Legal Education, 21 Law & Social Inquiry 2 (1996).
Lani Guinier, Michelle Fine & Jane Balin, Becoming Gentlemen: Women’s Experiences at One Ivy League Law School, 143 University of Pennsylvania Law Review (1994), https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/pnlr143&div=10&id=&page=
Lauren A., Graber, Are We there yet? Progress toward Gender-Neutral Legal Education, 33 Social Justice 64 (2013).
Leon Anderson, Analytic Autoethnography, 35 Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 373-395 (2006), https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241605280449
Liliana Ronconi & María de los Ángeles Ramallo, La enseñanza del derecho con perspectiva de género: herramientas para su profundización (Universidad de Buenos Aires, 2020), https://799fb317-2c3a-41d6-beb4-0a86310baf35.usrfiles.com/ugd/799fb3_8f7df0dc543848178f59875d61b2b487.pdf
Lina Buchely, María Victoria Castro & Giovanna Patricia Uribe Vásquez, Género y derecho. Análisis bibliométrico del campo de estudio en Colombia, 1991-2020, en Perspectivas de género en la educación superior: una mirada latinoamericana (Universidad Icesi, 2020).
Lisa A. Wilson & David H. Taylor, Surveying Gender Bias at One Midwestern Law School, 9 American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 251-279 (2001).
Lois Schwartz & Suzanne Homer, Admitted but not Accepted Outsiders Take an Inside Look at Law School, 5 Berkeley Women’s Law Journal 1-74 (1989).
Ludmila Mládková, Leadership and Storytelling, 75 Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 83-90 (2013), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.010
María Adelaida Ceballos Bedoya, Inclusión de género, exclusión de clase. Las mujeres en la educación jurídica colombiana, 49 Revista de Derecho Uninorte 113-41 (2018), https://doi.org/10.14482/dere.49.10808
Marsha Garrison, Brian Tomko & Ivan Yip, Succeeding in Law School: A Comparison of Women’s Experiences at Brooklyn Law School and the University of Pennsylvania, 3 Michigan Journal of Gender & Law 515 (1995).
Mary Jane Mossman, The Past as Prologue: Women and the Law (Osgoode Hall Law School of York University, 1990).
Mary Jane Mossman, The First Women Lawyers: A Comparative Study of Gender, Law and the Legal Professions (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006).
Mauricio García Villegas & María Adelaida Ceballos Bedoya, La profesión jurídica en Colombia: falta de reglas y exceso de mercado (Dejusticia, 2019).
Morrison Torrey, Yet Another Gender Study? A Critique of the Harvard Study and a Proposal for Change, 13 William & Mary Journal of Race, Gender, and Social Justice 795-820 (2007).
Nadine J. Kaslow, My Life as a Female Leader in the Academy: Lessons Learned, 43 Women & Therapy 18-43 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2019.1684680
Nancy Cardinaux, La articulación entre enseñanza e investigación del derecho, 6 Academia. Revista sobre la Enseñanza del Derecho 241-255 (2008).
Nancy S. Erickson, Sex Bias in Law School Courses: Some Common Issues, 38 Journal of Legal Education 101-116 (1988).
Natalia Salas, Derecho y cambio social: un ejercicio aplicado desde vidas trans, 56 Cadernos Pagu (2019).
Ontario Human Rights Commission, An intersectional approach to discrimination: Addressing multiple grounds in human rights claims (2001), https://tandis.odihr.pl/bitstream/20.500.12389/20384/1/05177.pdf
Ramiro Ávila Santamaría, Crítica al derecho y a la facultad de jurisprudencia desde el género, en El género en el derecho: ensayos críticos (Quito, Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos, Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos, 2009).
Rebeca Cook & Simone Cusack, Estereotipos de género perspectivas legales transnacionales, Andrea Parra, trad. (Profamilia, 2009), https://www.law.utoronto.ca/utfl_file/count/documents/reprohealth/estereotipos-de-genero.pdf
Richard L. Abel & Philip Simon Coleman Lewis, Lawyers in Society: the Common Law World (Beard Books, 2005).
Robert Granfield, Making Elite Lawyers: Visions of Law at Harvard and Beyond (Routledge, 1992).
Rogelio Pérez Perdomo, Los abogados de América Latina una introducción histórica (Universidad Externado de Colombia, 2004).
Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Reflections on Women and the Legal Profession: A Sociological Perspective, 1 Harvard Women’s Law Journal 1 (1978).
Rosemary Auchmuty, Agenda for a Feminist Legal Curriculum, 23 Legal Studies 377-401 (2003), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-121X.2003.tb00220.x
Sara Ahmed, Introduction: Sexism - A Problem with a Name, 86 New Formations 5-13 (2015), https://doi.org/10.3898/NEWF.86.INTRODUCTION.2015
Sandra Janoff, The Influence of Legal Education on Moral Reasoning, 76 Minnesota Law Review 47 (1991).
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Simonetta Polenghi, Striving for Recognition: the First Five Female Professors in Italy (1887-1904), 56 Paedagogica Historica 1-21 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2019.1690008
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How to Cite
Uribe Vásquez, G. P. (2024). Why does that Lawyer Smile? Gender Discrimination in Legal Education. Vniversitas, 73. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.vj73.psea
Section
Edición ordinaria
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