Keywords
How to Cite
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is reported to be one of the biggest challenges being faced by modern medicine. With exponential increase in the number of resistance cases around the world, it is estimated that the number of deaths would shoot up to ten-fold in comparison to the present AMR mortality rate by 2050. The occurrence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic somehow compromised the AMR research, infection prevention and control programs, its innovation and global health programs along with antimicrobial stewardship (AS). With current news of third wave around the world, the exact impact and duration of the concurrent COVID-19 waves on AMR and AS cannot be exactly evaluated due to insufficient reports. However, the situation could be speculated by surveying the amplification in the unmethodical use of antimicrobials, occurrence of more secondary bacterial and fungal infections during the second wave, extended hospital stay and adverse medical exigency in comparison to the first wave. COVID-19 has revealed the harsh reality that even countries with best medical facilities lagged behind to withstand national medical need during a pandemic. In such circumstances, the clinical and scientific communities need to understand that available global medical amenities are insufficient for a second pandemic in the form of AMR. Therefore, the international surveillance systems need highlight deficiencies in AMR containment and mitigate strategies for future challenges emerging due to AMR.
Scott J. The economic, geopolitical and health impacts of COVID-19, World Economic Forum, 2020. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/the-economic-geopolitical-and-healthconsequences-of-covid-19/
WHO. WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard, World Health Organiztion, 1–5, 2021.
Callaway E. Could new COVID variants undermine vaccines? Labs scramble to find out, Nature, 589: 177–178, 2021.
https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-0-00310/d41586-021-00031-0.pdf
Rawson TM, Moore LSP, Zhu N, Ranganathan N, Skolimowska K, Gilchrist M,et al. Bacterial and fungal coinfection in individuals with coronavirus: a rapid review to support covid-19 antimicrobial prescribing, Clinical Infectious Diseases, 71(9): 2459–2468, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa530Lynch C
Mahida N, Gray J. Antimicrobial stewardship: a COVID casualty?, Journal of Hospital Infection, 106(3): 401–403, 2020.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhin.2020.10.002
Monnet DL, Harbarth S. Will coronavirus disease (COVID-19) have an impact on antimicrobial resistance?, Eurosurveillance, 25(45): 2001886, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.45.2001886
Afshinnekoo E, Bhattacharya C, Burguete-García A, Castro-Nallar E, Deng Y, Desnues C, et al. COVID-19 drug practices risk antimicrobial resistance evolution, The Lancet Microbe, 2: 135–136, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00039-2
Prestinaci F, Pezzotti P, Pantosti A. Antimicrobial resistance : a global multifaceted phenomenon, Pathogens and Global Health, 109: 309–318, 2016.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/ 10.1179%2F2047773215Y.0000000030
Arshad M, Mahmood SF, Khan M, Hasan R. Covid -19, misinformation, and antimicrobial resistance, BMJ, 371: m4501, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m4501
WHO. Antimicrobial resistance,World Health Organization, 2020.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance
US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC. Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1–113, 2019.
https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/biggest_threats.html
Pelfrene E, Botgros R, Cavaleri M. Antimicrobial multidrug resistance in the era of COVID-19: a forgotten plight?, Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 10: 21, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-021-00893-z
WHO. Global strategy for containment of antimicrobial resistance. World HealthOrganization, 105, 2001.
https://www.who.int/drugresistance/WHO_Global_Strategy_English.pdf
WHO. The evolving threat of antimicrobial resistance: options for action,World Health Organization, 1–119, 2014.
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44812
WHO. World antimicrobial awareness week,World Health Organization, 2015.
Regional Committee for Europe. European strategic action plan on antibiotic resistance, 6:12–15, 2011. https://www.euro.who.int/_data/assets/pdf_file/0008/147734/wd14E_AntibioticResistance_111380.pdf
NCDC. National policy for containment of antimicrobial resistance, India, 2011.
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/ab_policy.pdf
National action plan on antimicrobial resistance (NAP-AMR), India, 2017.
https://ncdc.gov.in/WriteReadData/l892s/File645.pdf
Dijk KH and Van L. The world medicines situation: rational use of medicines, World Medicine Situation, 2: 24–30, 2011.
Ansari S, Hays JP, Kemp A, et al. The potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on global antimicrobial and biocide resistance: an AMR insights global perspective, JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance, 3(2). 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlab038
Zhu X, Ge Y, Wu T, et al. Co-infection with respiratory pathogens among COVID-2019 cases,Virus Research, 285: 198005, 2020. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198005
Rodríguez-Baño J, Rossolini GM, Schultsz C, et al. Key considerations on the potential impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on antimicrobial resistance research and surveillance, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene. 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/trstmh/trab048
Langford BJ, So M, Raybardhan S, Leung V, et al. Bacterial co-infection and secondary infection in patients with COVID-19: a living rapid review and meta-analysis, Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 26(12): 1622–1629, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.07.016
Garcia-Vidal C, Sanjuan G, Moreno-García E, et al. Incidence of co-infections and superinfections in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study, Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 27(1): 83–88, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.07.041
Vaughn VM, Gandhi TN, Petty LA, et al. Empiric antibacterial therapy and community-onset bacterial coinfection in patients hospitalized with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A multi-hospital cohort study, Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72(10): 533–541, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1239
Xu XW, Wu XX, Jiang XG, et al. Clinical findings in a group of patients infected with the 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2) outside of Wuhan, China: retrospective case series, BMJ, 368: 606, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m606
Subramanya SH, Czyż DM, Acharya KP, et al. The potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic stewardship, Virus Disease, 23(2): 1–8,2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13337-021-00695-2
Chedid M, Waked R, Haddad E, et al. Antibiotics in treatment of COVID-19 complications: a review of frequency, indications, and efficacy, Journal of Infection and Public Health,14(5): 570–576, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2021.02.001
Chang CY, Chan KG. Underestimation of co-infections in COVID-19 due to nondiscriminatory use of antibiotics, Journal of Infection, 81(3): 29–30, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.077
Martinez KA, Rood M, Jhangiani N, et al. Association between antibiotic prescribing for respiratory tract infections and patient satisfaction in direct-to-consumer telemedicine, JAMA-Internal Medicine, 178(11): 1558–1560, 2018.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.4318
Ray KN, Shi Z, Gidengil CA, et al. Antibiotic prescribing during pediatric direct-to-consumer telemedicine visits, Pediatrics, 143(5): e20182491, 2019.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2491
Clancy C, Nguyen M. COVID-19, superinfections and antimicrobial development: What can we expect?, Clinical Infectious Diseases, 71(10): 2736–2743, 2020.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2 Fcid%2Fciaa524
NIH, COVID-19 treatment guidelines. Clinical spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 infection, 2021.
Sell TK, Hosangadi D, Trotochaud M. Misinformation and the US Ebola communication crisis: analyzing the veracity and content of social media messages related to a fear-inducing infectious disease outbreak, BMC Public Health, 20(1):550, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08697-3
Islam MS, Sarkar T, Khan SH, et al. COVID-19-Related infodemic and its impact on public health: a global social media analysis, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygeine, 103: 1621–1629, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-0812
Glasziou PP, Sanders S, Hoffmann T. Waste in covid-19 research, BMJ, 369: 1847, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1847
Wang Y, Hao H, Platt LS. Examining risk and crisis communications of government agencies and stakeholders during early-stages of COVID-19 on Twitter, Computers in Human Behaviours, 114: 106568, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106568
Gonsalves G, Yamey G. Political interference in public health science during Covid-19, BMJ, 371:19–20, 2020.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m3878
Azad A. Antimicrobial crisis, DAWN.COM., 2020.
https://www.dawn.com/news/1578514
Nori P, Cowman K, Chen V, et al. Bacterial and fungal coinfections in COVID-19 patients hospitalized during the New York City pandemic surge, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 42(1): 84–88, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/ice.2020.368
Shehadeh M, Suaifan G, Darwish RM, et al. Knowledge, attitudes and behavior regarding antibiotics use and misuse among adults in the community of Jordan. A pilot study, Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 20(2): 125–133, 2012.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2011.11.005
Wang Z, Wang J, He J. Active and effective measures for the care of patients with cancer during the COVID-19 spread in China, JAMA Oncology, 6(5): 631–632, 2020.
doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2020.1198OECD
Stemming the superbug tide: just a few dollars more, OECD Health Policy Studies, OECD Publication Paris, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264307599-en
Mazdeyasna H, Nori P, Patel P, et al. Antimicrobial stewardship at the core of COVID-19 response efforts: implications for sustaining and building programs, Current Infectious Disease Reports, 22(9): 23, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11908-020-00734-x
Usman M, Farooq M, Hanna K. Environmental side effects of the injudicious use of antimicrobials in the era of COVID-19, Science of the Total Environment, 745: 141053, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141053
Wilson LA, Rogers Van Katwyk S, Fafard P, et al. Lessons learned from COVID-19 for the post-antibiotic future, Global Health, 16: 94, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00623-x
Canto NR, GijoÂn D, Ruiz-Garbajosa P. Antimicrobial resistance in ICUs: an update in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic, Current Opinion in Critical Care, 26(5): 433–441, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/MCC.0000000000000755OECD
Waiting Times for Health Services: Next in Line, OECD Health Policy Studies,OECD Publication Paris, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1787/242e3c8c-en
CCA. When antibiotics aail: the expert panel on the potential socio-economic impacts of antimicrobial resistance in Canada, Council of Canadian Academies, 2019.
Liberati A, D’Amico R, Pifferi S, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis to reduce respiratory tract infections and mortality in adults receiving intensive care, Cochrane Database System Reviews, 4: CD000022, 2009.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000022.pub3
MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA, Barnes M, Ridda I, et al. The role of pneumonia and secondary bacterial infection in fatal and serious outcomes of pandemic influenza a(H1N1)pdm09, BMC Infectious Diseases, 18(1): 637, 2018.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3548-0
Morris DE, Cleary DW, Clarke SC. Secondary bacterial infections associated with influenza pandemics, Frontiers in Microbiology, 8: 1041, 2017.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2017.01041
Kashour Z, Riaz M, Garbati MA, et al. Efficacy of chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine in COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 76(1): 30–42, 2021.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkaa403UKRI
The recovery trial, 2022.
WHO. “Solidarity” clinical trial for COVID-19 treatments, World Health Organization, 2021.
Maugueret TMJ, Walker SL. Rapid detection of Obesumbacterium proteus from yeast and wort using polymerase chain reaction, Letters in Applied Microbiology, 35(4): 281–284, 2002.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1472-765x.2002.01179.x
Molento MB. COVID-19 and the rush for self-medication and self-dosing with ivermectin: a word of caution, One Health, 10:100148, 2020.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.onehlt.2020.100148
Torres NF, Chibi B, Middleton LE, et al. Evidence of factors influencing self-medication with antibiotics in low and middle-income countries: a systematic scoping review, Public Health, 168: 92–101, 2019.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2018.11.018
Rezasoltani S, Yadegar A, Hatami B, et al. Antimicrobial resistance as a hidden menace
lurking behind the COVID-19 outbreak: the global impacts of too much hygiene on AMR,
Frontiers in Microbiology, 11: 590683, 2020.
doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.590683
Stoker ML, Newport E, Hulit JC, et al. Impact of pharmacological agents on mitochondrial function: a growing opportunity?, Biochemical Society Transactions, 47(6): 1757–1772, 2019.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1042/BST20190280The
Economic Times. Third wave of COVID-19 definitely underway in Britain, says vaccine expert, 2021.
WHO. Clinical Management of COVID-19, World Health Organization, 2020.
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332196
Getahun H, Smith I, Trivedi K, et al. Tackling antimicrobial resistance in the COVID-19 pandemic, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 98(7): 442–442A, 2020.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2023 Pia Dey, Debaprasad Parai, Sk Tofajjen Hossain, Samir Kumar Mukherjee