Self-supply as an alternative approach to water access in rural scattered regions: evidence from a rural microcatchment in Colombia
Published
Dec 7, 2015
Almetrics
Dimensions
Google Scholar
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Abstract
Globally, access to improved water sources is lower in rural areas compared to urban areas. Furthermore, in rural areas many people use water from individual systems they have developed with their investments, often without external support. This phenomenon has been called Self-supply. Self-supply ranges from simple to complex systems and different water sources. Water quality varies, from achieving World Health Organization (WHO) standards (0 CFU/100 ml) to systems that provide water posing high risks to human health. While most studies in Self-supply have been developed in Africa, little is known in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). This research explores Self-supply in a rural microcatchment in Colombia (LAC). Data was collected through household and drinking water surveys and analysed. Results showed that 40% of households used Self-supply systems taking water from springs and brooks. Thermotolerant Coliforms were below 50 CFU/100 ml, both in dry and rainy season, and between 5 to 7% of samples achieved the WHO standard. These results suggest that Self-supply has potential to offer safe drinking water, provided improvements on source protection and institutional support. Therefore, Self-supply could contribute to address “unfinished business”, including ensuring access for the hardest-to-reach people, as stated in the post-2015 development agenda.
Keywords
Self-supply, water quality, Thermotolerant coliforms, rural areas, Colombiaautoabastecimiento, calidad de agua, coliformes termotolerantes, áreas rurales, Colombia
References
[1] WHO and Unicef, Progress on drinking water and sanitation: 2014 update. Geneva: WHO (World Health Organization), 2014.
[2] J. Butterworth, S. Sutton, and L. Mekonta, “Self-supply as a complementary water services delivery model in Ethiopia,” Water Alternatives, vol. 6, pp. 405-423, 2013.
[3] J. Kiwanuka, “Achievements and lessons learned from the Uganda self-supply pilot Project 2006-2008,” in 2009 34th WEDC International Conference-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
[4] K. Kumamaru, I. Smout, and F. Odhiambo, “Self-supply: Bridging the gap between household demand and community water supply?,” in 2011 35th WEDC International Conference. The Future of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Low-Income Countries: Innovation, Adaptation and Engagement in a Changing World, Loughborough, UK, 2011.
[5] P. Moriarty, S. Smits, J. Butterworth, and R. Franceys, “Trends in rural water supply: Towards a service delivery approach,” Water Alternatives, vol. 6, pp. 329-349, 2013.
[6] M. Munkonge and P. Harvey, “Assessing the potential for self-supply in Zambia,” in 2009 34th WEDC International Conference-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
[7] S. Sutton, “Integrating a new approach: The example of self-supply,” in 2009 34th WEDC International Conference-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
[8] M. MacCarthy, J. Annis, and J. Mihelcic, “Unsubsidised self-supply in eastern Madagascar,” Water Alternatives, vol. 6, pp. 424-438, 2013.
[9] D. B. Akers, M. F. Maccarthy, J. A. Cunningham, J. Annis, and J. R. Mihelcic, “Lead (Pb) contamination of self-supply groundwater systems in coastal madagascar and predictions of blood lead levels in exposed children,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 49, pp. 2685-2693, 2015.
[10] Y. Chakava, R. Franceys, and A. Parker, “Private boreholes for Nairobi’s urban poor: The stop-gap or the solution?,” Habitat International, vol. 43, pp. 108-116, 2014.
[11] K. Nyarko, E. Awuah, and D. Ofori, “Self-supply schemes for community water supply in Ghana,” in 2008 33rd WEDC International Conference-Access to Sanitation and Safe Water: Global Partnerships and Local Actions, Accra, Ghana, 2008, pp. 421-425.
[12] L. Okotto, J. Okotto-Okotto, H. Price, S. Pedley, and J. Wright, “Socio-economic aspects of domestic groundwater consumption, vending and use in Kisumu, Kenya,” Applied Geography, vol. 58, pp. 189-197, 2015.
[13] WHO, “Guidelines for drinking-water quality (2011),” in WHO web site. Accessed vol. 20, ed. Geneva (Switzerland): WHO (World Health Organization), 2012.
[14] G. Oluwasanya, J. Smith, and R. Carter, “Self-supply systems: Urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria,” Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, vol. 11, pp. 172-178, 2011.
[15] Departamento Nacional de Planeación (DNP), Documento Conpes 3810: Política para el suministro de agua potable y saneamiento básico en la zona rural. Bogotá: DNP, 2014.
[16] R. Yin, Case study Research: Design and methods, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Sage, 2014.
[17] M. Bunch, K. Morrison, M. Parkes, and H. Venema, “Promoting health and well-being by managing for Social-Ecological resilience: The potential of integrating ecohealth and water resources management approaches,” Ecology and Society, vol. 16, pp. 18, http://www. ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss1/art6/, 2011.
[18] Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC), “Cuencas del Valle del Cauca.” 2013 [Online]. Available: http://www.cvc.gov.co/vsm38cvc/data/RecursoHidrico/aplicativos/Cuenca
[19] Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC), Aplicativo GeoCVC. Cali:
CVC, 2012.
[20] M. Roa-García, S. Brown, H. Schreier, and L. Lavkulich, “The role of land use and soils in regulating water flow in small headwater catchments of the Andes,” Water Resources Research, vol. 47, pp. 12, W05510, doi:10.1029/2010WR009582, 2011.
[21] D. V. Chapman, Unesco, World Health Organization, and United Nations Environment Programme, Water Quality Assessments: A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments, and Water in Environmental Monitoring, 2nd ed. London: E&FN Spon, 1996.
[22] C. Robson, Real World Research: A Resource for Users of Social Research Methods in Applied Settings, 3rd ed. Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
[23] Comité Departamental de Cafeteros del Valle del Cauca (CDC), “Sistema de Información de la Caficultura para el Valle del Cauca,” unpublished, 2003.
[24] I. Domínguez, “Participatory modelling for holistic understanding of catchment health and human health in andean rural microcatchments, the case of Calabazas,” PhD dissertation, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, UK, 2014.
[25] Oxfam-DelAgua, “Oxfam-DelAgua water testing kit: Users manual,” 2012 [Online]. Available: http://www.delagua.org/assets/docs/usermanuals/DeLagua_Brochure_v1_usermanual.pdf
[26] World Health Organization (WHO), Rapid assessment of drinking-water quality: A handbook for implementation. Geneva: WHO, 2012.
[27] P. K. Jensen, G. Jayasinghe, W. van Der Hoek, S. Cairncross, and A. Dalsgaard, “Is there an association between bacteriological drinking water quality and childhood diarrhoea in developing countries?,” Tropical Medicine and International Health, vol. 9, pp. 1210-1215, 2004.
[28] A. Parker, R. Youlten, M. Dillon, T. Nussbaumer, R. Carter, S. Tyrrel, et al., “An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda,” Journal of Water and Health, vol. 8, pp. 550-560, 2010.
[29] R. Johnston, “Beyond improved: Monitoring drinking water in the post-MDG era,” in 36th WEDC International Conference, Nakuru, Kenya, 2013 [Online]. Available: http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/36/Johnston-1801.pdf
[30] K. Levy, A. Hubbard, K. Nelson, and J. Eisenberg, “Drivers of water quality variability in northern coastal Ecuador,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 43, pp. 1788-1797, 2009.
[31] A. Strauch and A. Almedom, “Traditional water resource management and water quality in rural Tanzania,” Human Ecology, vol. 39, pp. 93-106, 2011.
[32] S. A. Esrey, “Water, waste, and well-being: A multicountry study,” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 143, pp. 608-623, 1996.
[33] J. Gentry-Shields and J. Bartram, “Human health and the water environment: Using the DPSEEA framework to identify the driving forces of disease,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 468-469, pp. 306-314, 2013.
[34] Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS), Estado de la vigilancia de la calidad del agua para consumo humano, 2013. Bogotá: INS, 2014.
[35] S. Postel and B. Thompson, “Watershed protection: Capturing the benefits of nature’s water supply services,” Natural Resources Forum, vol. 29, pp. 98-108, 2005.
[36] T. Clasen, W. P. Schmidt, T. Rabie, I. Roberts, and S. Cairncross, “Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea: Systematic review and meta-analysis,” British Medical Journal, vol. 334, pp. 782-785, 2007.
[37] M. Leiter, J. Levy, S. Mutiti, M. Boardman, A. Wojnar, and H. Deka, “Drinking water quality in the Mount Kasigau region of Kenya: A source to point-of-use assessment,” Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 68, pp. 1-12, 2013.
[38] J. Wright, S. Gundry, and R. Conroy, “Household drinking water in developing countries: A systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use,” Tropical Medicine and International Health, vol. 9, pp. 106-117, 2004.
[39] G. Rosa and T. Clasen, “Estimating the scope of household water treatment in low- and medium-income countries,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 82, pp. 289-300, 2010.
[40] Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE). Pagina de inicio, 2014 [Online]. Available: http://www.dane.gov.co/
[41] E. Lee and K. Schwab, “Deficiencies in drinking water distribution systems in developing countries,” Journal of Water and Health, vol. 3, pp. 109-127, 2005.
[42] L. Fewtrell, R. B. Kaufmann, D. Kay, W. Enanoria, L. Haller, and J. M. Colford Jr., “Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis,” Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol. 5, pp. 42-52, 2005.
[43] A. Kabirizi, R. Carter, J. Mpalanyi, and J. Ssebalu, “Self-help initiatives to improve wáter supplies in eastern and central Uganda,” in 2005 31st WEDC International Conference: Maximizing the Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kampala, Uganda, 2005, pp. 351-354.
[44] R. Keirle and C. Hayes, “A review of catchment management in the new context of drinking water safety plans,” Water and Environment Journal, vol. 21, pp. 208-216, 2007.
[45] K. Onda, J. Lobuglio, and J. Bartram, “Global access to safe water: Accounting for wáter quality and the resulting impact on MDG progress,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 9, pp. 880-894, 2012.
[46] S. Smits, B. van Koppen, P. Moriarty, and J. Butterworth, “Multiple-use services as an alternative to rural water supply services: A characterisation of the approach,” Water Alternatives, vol. 3, pp. 102-121, 2010.
[47] I. Domínguez, W. Torres-López, I. Restrepo-Tarquino, R. Oviedo-Ocaña, and I. Smout, “Livelihood factors, explaining water consumption in a (de facto) multiple uses wáter system in Colombia,” Ingeniería y Universidad, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 7-25, 2014.
[48] T. Gomiero, D. Pimentel, and M. G. Paoletti, “Is there a need for a more sustainable agriculture?,” Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, vol. 30, pp. 6-23, 2011.
[2] J. Butterworth, S. Sutton, and L. Mekonta, “Self-supply as a complementary water services delivery model in Ethiopia,” Water Alternatives, vol. 6, pp. 405-423, 2013.
[3] J. Kiwanuka, “Achievements and lessons learned from the Uganda self-supply pilot Project 2006-2008,” in 2009 34th WEDC International Conference-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
[4] K. Kumamaru, I. Smout, and F. Odhiambo, “Self-supply: Bridging the gap between household demand and community water supply?,” in 2011 35th WEDC International Conference. The Future of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Low-Income Countries: Innovation, Adaptation and Engagement in a Changing World, Loughborough, UK, 2011.
[5] P. Moriarty, S. Smits, J. Butterworth, and R. Franceys, “Trends in rural water supply: Towards a service delivery approach,” Water Alternatives, vol. 6, pp. 329-349, 2013.
[6] M. Munkonge and P. Harvey, “Assessing the potential for self-supply in Zambia,” in 2009 34th WEDC International Conference-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
[7] S. Sutton, “Integrating a new approach: The example of self-supply,” in 2009 34th WEDC International Conference-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
[8] M. MacCarthy, J. Annis, and J. Mihelcic, “Unsubsidised self-supply in eastern Madagascar,” Water Alternatives, vol. 6, pp. 424-438, 2013.
[9] D. B. Akers, M. F. Maccarthy, J. A. Cunningham, J. Annis, and J. R. Mihelcic, “Lead (Pb) contamination of self-supply groundwater systems in coastal madagascar and predictions of blood lead levels in exposed children,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 49, pp. 2685-2693, 2015.
[10] Y. Chakava, R. Franceys, and A. Parker, “Private boreholes for Nairobi’s urban poor: The stop-gap or the solution?,” Habitat International, vol. 43, pp. 108-116, 2014.
[11] K. Nyarko, E. Awuah, and D. Ofori, “Self-supply schemes for community water supply in Ghana,” in 2008 33rd WEDC International Conference-Access to Sanitation and Safe Water: Global Partnerships and Local Actions, Accra, Ghana, 2008, pp. 421-425.
[12] L. Okotto, J. Okotto-Okotto, H. Price, S. Pedley, and J. Wright, “Socio-economic aspects of domestic groundwater consumption, vending and use in Kisumu, Kenya,” Applied Geography, vol. 58, pp. 189-197, 2015.
[13] WHO, “Guidelines for drinking-water quality (2011),” in WHO web site. Accessed vol. 20, ed. Geneva (Switzerland): WHO (World Health Organization), 2012.
[14] G. Oluwasanya, J. Smith, and R. Carter, “Self-supply systems: Urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria,” Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, vol. 11, pp. 172-178, 2011.
[15] Departamento Nacional de Planeación (DNP), Documento Conpes 3810: Política para el suministro de agua potable y saneamiento básico en la zona rural. Bogotá: DNP, 2014.
[16] R. Yin, Case study Research: Design and methods, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Sage, 2014.
[17] M. Bunch, K. Morrison, M. Parkes, and H. Venema, “Promoting health and well-being by managing for Social-Ecological resilience: The potential of integrating ecohealth and water resources management approaches,” Ecology and Society, vol. 16, pp. 18, http://www. ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss1/art6/, 2011.
[18] Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC), “Cuencas del Valle del Cauca.” 2013 [Online]. Available: http://www.cvc.gov.co/vsm38cvc/data/RecursoHidrico/aplicativos/Cuenca
[19] Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC), Aplicativo GeoCVC. Cali:
CVC, 2012.
[20] M. Roa-García, S. Brown, H. Schreier, and L. Lavkulich, “The role of land use and soils in regulating water flow in small headwater catchments of the Andes,” Water Resources Research, vol. 47, pp. 12, W05510, doi:10.1029/2010WR009582, 2011.
[21] D. V. Chapman, Unesco, World Health Organization, and United Nations Environment Programme, Water Quality Assessments: A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments, and Water in Environmental Monitoring, 2nd ed. London: E&FN Spon, 1996.
[22] C. Robson, Real World Research: A Resource for Users of Social Research Methods in Applied Settings, 3rd ed. Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
[23] Comité Departamental de Cafeteros del Valle del Cauca (CDC), “Sistema de Información de la Caficultura para el Valle del Cauca,” unpublished, 2003.
[24] I. Domínguez, “Participatory modelling for holistic understanding of catchment health and human health in andean rural microcatchments, the case of Calabazas,” PhD dissertation, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, UK, 2014.
[25] Oxfam-DelAgua, “Oxfam-DelAgua water testing kit: Users manual,” 2012 [Online]. Available: http://www.delagua.org/assets/docs/usermanuals/DeLagua_Brochure_v1_usermanual.pdf
[26] World Health Organization (WHO), Rapid assessment of drinking-water quality: A handbook for implementation. Geneva: WHO, 2012.
[27] P. K. Jensen, G. Jayasinghe, W. van Der Hoek, S. Cairncross, and A. Dalsgaard, “Is there an association between bacteriological drinking water quality and childhood diarrhoea in developing countries?,” Tropical Medicine and International Health, vol. 9, pp. 1210-1215, 2004.
[28] A. Parker, R. Youlten, M. Dillon, T. Nussbaumer, R. Carter, S. Tyrrel, et al., “An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda,” Journal of Water and Health, vol. 8, pp. 550-560, 2010.
[29] R. Johnston, “Beyond improved: Monitoring drinking water in the post-MDG era,” in 36th WEDC International Conference, Nakuru, Kenya, 2013 [Online]. Available: http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/36/Johnston-1801.pdf
[30] K. Levy, A. Hubbard, K. Nelson, and J. Eisenberg, “Drivers of water quality variability in northern coastal Ecuador,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 43, pp. 1788-1797, 2009.
[31] A. Strauch and A. Almedom, “Traditional water resource management and water quality in rural Tanzania,” Human Ecology, vol. 39, pp. 93-106, 2011.
[32] S. A. Esrey, “Water, waste, and well-being: A multicountry study,” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 143, pp. 608-623, 1996.
[33] J. Gentry-Shields and J. Bartram, “Human health and the water environment: Using the DPSEEA framework to identify the driving forces of disease,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 468-469, pp. 306-314, 2013.
[34] Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS), Estado de la vigilancia de la calidad del agua para consumo humano, 2013. Bogotá: INS, 2014.
[35] S. Postel and B. Thompson, “Watershed protection: Capturing the benefits of nature’s water supply services,” Natural Resources Forum, vol. 29, pp. 98-108, 2005.
[36] T. Clasen, W. P. Schmidt, T. Rabie, I. Roberts, and S. Cairncross, “Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea: Systematic review and meta-analysis,” British Medical Journal, vol. 334, pp. 782-785, 2007.
[37] M. Leiter, J. Levy, S. Mutiti, M. Boardman, A. Wojnar, and H. Deka, “Drinking water quality in the Mount Kasigau region of Kenya: A source to point-of-use assessment,” Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 68, pp. 1-12, 2013.
[38] J. Wright, S. Gundry, and R. Conroy, “Household drinking water in developing countries: A systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use,” Tropical Medicine and International Health, vol. 9, pp. 106-117, 2004.
[39] G. Rosa and T. Clasen, “Estimating the scope of household water treatment in low- and medium-income countries,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 82, pp. 289-300, 2010.
[40] Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE). Pagina de inicio, 2014 [Online]. Available: http://www.dane.gov.co/
[41] E. Lee and K. Schwab, “Deficiencies in drinking water distribution systems in developing countries,” Journal of Water and Health, vol. 3, pp. 109-127, 2005.
[42] L. Fewtrell, R. B. Kaufmann, D. Kay, W. Enanoria, L. Haller, and J. M. Colford Jr., “Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis,” Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol. 5, pp. 42-52, 2005.
[43] A. Kabirizi, R. Carter, J. Mpalanyi, and J. Ssebalu, “Self-help initiatives to improve wáter supplies in eastern and central Uganda,” in 2005 31st WEDC International Conference: Maximizing the Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kampala, Uganda, 2005, pp. 351-354.
[44] R. Keirle and C. Hayes, “A review of catchment management in the new context of drinking water safety plans,” Water and Environment Journal, vol. 21, pp. 208-216, 2007.
[45] K. Onda, J. Lobuglio, and J. Bartram, “Global access to safe water: Accounting for wáter quality and the resulting impact on MDG progress,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 9, pp. 880-894, 2012.
[46] S. Smits, B. van Koppen, P. Moriarty, and J. Butterworth, “Multiple-use services as an alternative to rural water supply services: A characterisation of the approach,” Water Alternatives, vol. 3, pp. 102-121, 2010.
[47] I. Domínguez, W. Torres-López, I. Restrepo-Tarquino, R. Oviedo-Ocaña, and I. Smout, “Livelihood factors, explaining water consumption in a (de facto) multiple uses wáter system in Colombia,” Ingeniería y Universidad, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 7-25, 2014.
[48] T. Gomiero, D. Pimentel, and M. G. Paoletti, “Is there a need for a more sustainable agriculture?,” Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, vol. 30, pp. 6-23, 2011.
How to Cite
Dominguez-Rivera, I., Torres-López, W., Restrepo-Tarquino, I., Patterson, C., & Gowing, J. (2015). Self-supply as an alternative approach to water access in rural scattered regions: evidence from a rural microcatchment in Colombia. Ingeniería Y Universidad, 20(1), 175–198. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.iyu20-1.ssaa
Section
Civil and environmental engineering