Keywords
visual memory
learning disabilities
neuropsychology
children
learning disabilities
neuropsychology
children
How to Cite
Visual Memory Test based on Snodgrass Pictures (VMT-SP): a New Neuropsychological Measure of Visual Memory on Children with Learning Disabilities. (2019). Universitas Psychologica, 18(2), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy18-2.vmtb
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Abstract
Visual memory can be defined as the ability to recall visual images in the form of objects events or words. Previous neuropsychological research on Learning Disabilities (LD) involving visual memory has been focused particularly on children who present nonverbal LD, and their scholar underachievement. Objective: This study aims to develop a visual memory test using recognisable objects and to determine their normative values and validity in a population of children with LD and in a control group. Methods and procedures: A total of 330 children participated in this study (7-14 years), 190 suffered of some kind of LD and 140 did not have any diagnosis. Visual Memory was assessed using a test (VMT-SP) based on Snodgrass Pictures (Snodgrass & Vanderwart, 1980) composed of a short-term, long-term and a recognition assessment. Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT) and Hooper Visual Organisation Test (HVOT) were used to assess validity. Results: Short-term, long-term recall and long-term recognition differed significantly between the LD children and the control group. Moreover, the scores were influenced by the age of the children (with a higher percentage of correct answers being given by the older children), gender, habitat and mother’s level of education. Finally, the test results were associated with other measures of visual memory. Conclusions: VMT-SP is a new clinical tool for assessing visual memory. We present evidence of its concurrent validity and applicability in the evaluation of children with LD.
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Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2001). ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington: Aseba.
Bain, S. K., & Jaspers, K. E. (2010). Test Review: Review of Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test: Kaufman, AS, & Kaufman, NL (2004). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, Second Edition. Bloomington, MN: Pearson, Inc. Journal of Psychoeducational assessment, 28(2), 167-174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909348217
Bird, C. M., & Burgess, N. (2008). The hippocampus and memory: insights from spatial processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(3), 182-194. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2335
Brandenburg, J., Klesczewski, J., Fischbach, A., Schuchardt, K., Büttner, G., & Hasselhorn, M. (2015). Working memory in children with learning disabilities in reading versus spelling: Searching for overlapping and specific cognitive factors. Journal of learning disabilities, 48(6), 622-634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414521665
Brankaer, C., Ghesquiere, P., & De Smedt, B. (2014). Numerical magnitude processing deficits in children with mathematical difficulties are independent of intelligence. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(11), 2603-26261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.06.022
Brown, F. C., Roth, R. M., Saykin, A. J., & Beverly-Gibson, G. (2007). A new measure of visual location learning and memory: development and psychometric properties for the Brown Location Test (BLT). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(5), 811-825. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040600878777
Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 205-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640801982312
Burneo-Garcés, C., Cruz-Quintana, F., Pérez-García, M., Fernández-Alcántara, M., Fasfous, A., & Pérez-Marfil, M. N. (2019). Interaction between Socioeconomic Status and Cognitive Development in Children Aged 7, 9, and 11 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 44(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2018.1554662
Correa, C., Fernández-Alcántara, M., Pérez-García, M., Laynez-Rubio, C., & Cruz-Quintana, F. (2017). Effects of an Executive Functions stimulation programme for children with learning disabilities/Efectos de un programa de estimulación de las Funciones Ejecutivas en niños con dificultades de aprendizaje. Estudios de Psicología, 38(2), 537-551. https://doi.org/10.1080/02109395.2017.1295576
Corsi, P. M. (1973). Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). McGill University. Montreal. Retrieved from http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id=0&dvs=1558916387370~169
Duncan, G. J., & Magnuson, K. (2012). Socioeconomic status and cognitive functioning: moving from correlation to causation. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 3(3), 377-386. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1176
Cuetos, F., Ellis, A. W., & Alvarez, B. (1999). Naming times for the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures in Spanish. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31(4), 650-658. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200741
Eng, H. Y., Chen, D., & Jiang, Y. (2005). Visual working memory for simple and complex visual stimuli. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(6), 1127-1133. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206454
Freire, C., Ramos, R., Lopez-Espinosa, M.-J., Díez, S., Vioque, J., Ballester, F., & Fernández, M.-F. (2010). Hair mercury levels, fish consumption, and cognitive development in preschool children from Granada, Spain. Environmental Research, 110(1), 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2009.10.005
Garcia, R. B., Mammarella, I. C., Tripodi, D., & Cornoldi, C. (2014). Visuospatial working memory for locations, colours, and binding in typically developing children and in children with dyslexia and non‐verbal learning disability. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 32(1), 17-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12019
Garcia, R. B., Mammarella, I. C., Pancera, A., Galera, C., & Cornoldi, C. (2015). Deficits in visual short-term memory binding in children at risk of non-verbal learning disabilities. Research in developmental disabilities, 45-46, 365-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.07.035
Hooper, E. H. (1983). Hooper visual organization test (VOT). Los Angeles, LA: Western Psychological Services.
Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman brief intelligence test. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Klesczewski, J., Brandenburg, J., Fischbach, A., Grube, D., Hasselhorn, M., & Büttner, G. (2015). Working memory functioning in children with poor mathematical skills. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 233, 83-92. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000206
Liebel, S. W., & Nelson, J. M. (2017). Auditory and Visual Working memory functioning in college students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or Learning Disabilities. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32(8), 980-991. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx014
Lowe, P. A., Mayfield, J. W., & Reynolds, C. R. (2003). Gender differences in memory test performance among children and adolescents. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18(8), 865-878. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(02)00162-2
Luck, S. J., & Hollingworth, A. R. (2008). Visual memory. New York, NY: University Press.
Maehler, C., & Schuchardt, K. (2016). The importance of working memory for school achievement in primary school children with intellectual or learning disabilities. Research in developmental disabilities, 58, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.08.007
Mammarella, I. C., & Pazzaglia, F. (2010). Visual perception and memory impairments in children at risk of nonverbal learning disabilities. Child Neuropsychology, 16(6), 564-576. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.485125
Mammarella, I. C., Giofrè, D., Ferrara, R., & Cornoldi, C. (2013). Intuitive geometry and visuospatial working memory in children showing symptoms of nonverbal learning disabilities. Child Neuropsychology, 19(3), 235-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.640931
McGivern, R. F., Mutter, K. L., Anderson, J., Wideman, G., Bodnar, M., & Huston, P. J. (1998). Gender differences in incidental learning and visual recognition memory: support for a sex difference in unconscious environmental awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(2), 223-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00017-8
Montgomery, J. W. (2000). Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43(2), 293-308. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4302.293
Mous, S. E., Schoemaker, N. K., Blanken, L. M., Thijssen, S., van der Ende, J., Polderman, T. J., … White, T. (2017). The association of gender, age, and intelligence with neuropsychological functioning in young typically developing children: The generation R study. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 6(1), 22-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2015.1067214
Müller, B. W., Gimbel, K., Keller-Pließnig, A., Sartory, G., Gastpar, M., & Davids, E. (2007). Neuropsychological assessment of adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 257(2), 112-119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-0688-9
Muñoz-Vinuesa, A., Afonso-Martín, A., Cruz-Quintana, F., Pérez-Marfil, M. N., Sotomayor-Morales, E. M., & Fernández-Alcántara, M. (2018). Determinantes sociales de la salud. Estatus socioeconómico, neurodesarrollo y funciones ejecutivas en la infancia. Index Enfermería, 27, 143-146. Retrieved from https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/85571/1/2018_Munoz-Vinuesa_etal_IndexEnferm.pdf
Narimoto, T., Matsuura, N., Takezawa, T., Mitsuhashi, Y., & Hiratani, M. (2013). Spatial short-term memory in children with nonverbal learning disabilities: Impairment in encoding spatial configuration. The Journal of genetic psychology, 174(1), 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2011.641040
Noble, K. G., Houston, S. M., Brito, N. H., Bartsch, H., Kan, E., Kuperman, J. M., ... & Schork, N. J. (2015). Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. Nature neuroscience, 18(5), 773. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3983
Passolunghi, M. C. (2006). Working memory and mathematical disability. In T. Packiam Alloway & S. Gathercole (Eds.), Working memory and neurodevelopmental condition (pp. 113–138). Hove, UK: Psychology Press
Pauls, F., Petermann, F., & Lepach, A. C. (2013). Gender differences in episodic memory and visual working memory including the effects of age. Memory, 21(7), 857-874. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.765892
Pérez, M. A. & Navalón, C. (2003). Normas españolas de 290 nuevos dibujos: Acuerdo en la denominación, concordancia de la imagen, familiaridad, complejidad visual y variabilidad de la imagen. Psicológica: Revista de Metodología y Psicología Learning Disability, 24(2), 215-242.
Peterson, D. J., & Berryhill, M. E. (2013). The Gestalt principle of similarity benefits visual working memory. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 20(6), 1282-1289. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0460-x
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Price, J. P. (2009). The computerized object and abstract designs test (COAD): A pilot study of a new test of visual working memory. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(2), 109-123. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466508X366713
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Bain, S. K., & Jaspers, K. E. (2010). Test Review: Review of Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test: Kaufman, AS, & Kaufman, NL (2004). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, Second Edition. Bloomington, MN: Pearson, Inc. Journal of Psychoeducational assessment, 28(2), 167-174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909348217
Bird, C. M., & Burgess, N. (2008). The hippocampus and memory: insights from spatial processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(3), 182-194. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2335
Brandenburg, J., Klesczewski, J., Fischbach, A., Schuchardt, K., Büttner, G., & Hasselhorn, M. (2015). Working memory in children with learning disabilities in reading versus spelling: Searching for overlapping and specific cognitive factors. Journal of learning disabilities, 48(6), 622-634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414521665
Brankaer, C., Ghesquiere, P., & De Smedt, B. (2014). Numerical magnitude processing deficits in children with mathematical difficulties are independent of intelligence. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(11), 2603-26261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.06.022
Brown, F. C., Roth, R. M., Saykin, A. J., & Beverly-Gibson, G. (2007). A new measure of visual location learning and memory: development and psychometric properties for the Brown Location Test (BLT). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(5), 811-825. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040600878777
Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 205-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640801982312
Burneo-Garcés, C., Cruz-Quintana, F., Pérez-García, M., Fernández-Alcántara, M., Fasfous, A., & Pérez-Marfil, M. N. (2019). Interaction between Socioeconomic Status and Cognitive Development in Children Aged 7, 9, and 11 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 44(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2018.1554662
Correa, C., Fernández-Alcántara, M., Pérez-García, M., Laynez-Rubio, C., & Cruz-Quintana, F. (2017). Effects of an Executive Functions stimulation programme for children with learning disabilities/Efectos de un programa de estimulación de las Funciones Ejecutivas en niños con dificultades de aprendizaje. Estudios de Psicología, 38(2), 537-551. https://doi.org/10.1080/02109395.2017.1295576
Corsi, P. M. (1973). Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). McGill University. Montreal. Retrieved from http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id=0&dvs=1558916387370~169
Duncan, G. J., & Magnuson, K. (2012). Socioeconomic status and cognitive functioning: moving from correlation to causation. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 3(3), 377-386. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1176
Cuetos, F., Ellis, A. W., & Alvarez, B. (1999). Naming times for the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures in Spanish. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31(4), 650-658. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200741
Eng, H. Y., Chen, D., & Jiang, Y. (2005). Visual working memory for simple and complex visual stimuli. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(6), 1127-1133. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206454
Freire, C., Ramos, R., Lopez-Espinosa, M.-J., Díez, S., Vioque, J., Ballester, F., & Fernández, M.-F. (2010). Hair mercury levels, fish consumption, and cognitive development in preschool children from Granada, Spain. Environmental Research, 110(1), 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2009.10.005
Garcia, R. B., Mammarella, I. C., Tripodi, D., & Cornoldi, C. (2014). Visuospatial working memory for locations, colours, and binding in typically developing children and in children with dyslexia and non‐verbal learning disability. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 32(1), 17-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12019
Garcia, R. B., Mammarella, I. C., Pancera, A., Galera, C., & Cornoldi, C. (2015). Deficits in visual short-term memory binding in children at risk of non-verbal learning disabilities. Research in developmental disabilities, 45-46, 365-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.07.035
Hooper, E. H. (1983). Hooper visual organization test (VOT). Los Angeles, LA: Western Psychological Services.
Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman brief intelligence test. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Klesczewski, J., Brandenburg, J., Fischbach, A., Grube, D., Hasselhorn, M., & Büttner, G. (2015). Working memory functioning in children with poor mathematical skills. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 233, 83-92. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000206
Liebel, S. W., & Nelson, J. M. (2017). Auditory and Visual Working memory functioning in college students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or Learning Disabilities. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32(8), 980-991. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx014
Lowe, P. A., Mayfield, J. W., & Reynolds, C. R. (2003). Gender differences in memory test performance among children and adolescents. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18(8), 865-878. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(02)00162-2
Luck, S. J., & Hollingworth, A. R. (2008). Visual memory. New York, NY: University Press.
Maehler, C., & Schuchardt, K. (2016). The importance of working memory for school achievement in primary school children with intellectual or learning disabilities. Research in developmental disabilities, 58, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.08.007
Mammarella, I. C., & Pazzaglia, F. (2010). Visual perception and memory impairments in children at risk of nonverbal learning disabilities. Child Neuropsychology, 16(6), 564-576. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.485125
Mammarella, I. C., Giofrè, D., Ferrara, R., & Cornoldi, C. (2013). Intuitive geometry and visuospatial working memory in children showing symptoms of nonverbal learning disabilities. Child Neuropsychology, 19(3), 235-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.640931
McGivern, R. F., Mutter, K. L., Anderson, J., Wideman, G., Bodnar, M., & Huston, P. J. (1998). Gender differences in incidental learning and visual recognition memory: support for a sex difference in unconscious environmental awareness. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(2), 223-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00017-8
Montgomery, J. W. (2000). Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43(2), 293-308. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4302.293
Mous, S. E., Schoemaker, N. K., Blanken, L. M., Thijssen, S., van der Ende, J., Polderman, T. J., … White, T. (2017). The association of gender, age, and intelligence with neuropsychological functioning in young typically developing children: The generation R study. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 6(1), 22-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2015.1067214
Müller, B. W., Gimbel, K., Keller-Pließnig, A., Sartory, G., Gastpar, M., & Davids, E. (2007). Neuropsychological assessment of adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 257(2), 112-119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-0688-9
Muñoz-Vinuesa, A., Afonso-Martín, A., Cruz-Quintana, F., Pérez-Marfil, M. N., Sotomayor-Morales, E. M., & Fernández-Alcántara, M. (2018). Determinantes sociales de la salud. Estatus socioeconómico, neurodesarrollo y funciones ejecutivas en la infancia. Index Enfermería, 27, 143-146. Retrieved from https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/85571/1/2018_Munoz-Vinuesa_etal_IndexEnferm.pdf
Narimoto, T., Matsuura, N., Takezawa, T., Mitsuhashi, Y., & Hiratani, M. (2013). Spatial short-term memory in children with nonverbal learning disabilities: Impairment in encoding spatial configuration. The Journal of genetic psychology, 174(1), 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2011.641040
Noble, K. G., Houston, S. M., Brito, N. H., Bartsch, H., Kan, E., Kuperman, J. M., ... & Schork, N. J. (2015). Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. Nature neuroscience, 18(5), 773. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3983
Passolunghi, M. C. (2006). Working memory and mathematical disability. In T. Packiam Alloway & S. Gathercole (Eds.), Working memory and neurodevelopmental condition (pp. 113–138). Hove, UK: Psychology Press
Pauls, F., Petermann, F., & Lepach, A. C. (2013). Gender differences in episodic memory and visual working memory including the effects of age. Memory, 21(7), 857-874. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.765892
Pérez, M. A. & Navalón, C. (2003). Normas españolas de 290 nuevos dibujos: Acuerdo en la denominación, concordancia de la imagen, familiaridad, complejidad visual y variabilidad de la imagen. Psicológica: Revista de Metodología y Psicología Learning Disability, 24(2), 215-242.
Peterson, D. J., & Berryhill, M. E. (2013). The Gestalt principle of similarity benefits visual working memory. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 20(6), 1282-1289. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0460-x
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