Keywords
purpose in life
self-reported health
mentally ill
healthy adults
well-being
self-reported health
mentally ill
healthy adults
well-being
How to Cite
Examining the Relation between Purpose in Life and Self-Reported Health in Community and Inpatient Populations. (2019). Universitas Psychologica, 18(2), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy18-2.erbt
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Abstract
The goal of the present study was to examine whether the relation commonly found between purpose in life and well-being occurs regardless of the population being assessed (community vs. inpatient) when the presence of somatic symptoms is used as a proxy for well-being. A total of 145 adults participated in the study (psychiatric patients, N = 28; healthy community adults, N = 117). Statistical analyses were first conducted to control for the effects of the observed differences in age and gender between samples. Results showed a significant relation between purpose in life and perceived health even after controlling for population. In both community and inpatient populations, purpose in life correlated with fewer somatic concerns. We discuss the benefits of incorporating a sense of directedness with prevention and treatment purposes.
Ato García, M., & Vallejo Seco, G. (2011). Diseños de investigación en Psicología [Research designs in Psychology]. Madrid: Pirámide.
Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. (1968). The token economy: A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.
Boyle, P. A., Barnes, L. L., Buchman, A. S., & Bennet, D.A. (2009). Purpose in life is associated with mortality among community-dwelling older persons. Psychosomatic Medicine, 71(5), 574-579. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181a5a7c0
Cohen, R., Bavishi, C., & Rozanski, A. (2016). Purpose in life and its relationship to all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events: A meta-analysis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 78(2), 122-133. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000274
Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism: The psychometric approach to Frankl’s concept of noogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20(2), 200-207. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(196404)20:2<200::AID-JCLP2270200203>3.0.CO;2-U
Damon, W., Menon, J., & Bronk, K. C. (2003). The development of purpose during adolescence. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 119-128. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0703_2
Diener, E., & Larsen, R. J. (1993). The subjective experience of emotional well-being. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 405-415). New York: Guilford Press.
Ehrlich-Ben, O., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Feingold, D., Vahab, K., Amiaz, R., Weiser, M., & Lysaker, P. H. (2013). Meaning in life, insight and self-stigma among people with severe mental illness. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(2), 195-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.07.011
Frankl, V. E. (1959). Man’s search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press.
García-Alandete, J. (2015). Does meaning in life predict psychological well-being? An analysis using a Spanish versions of the Purpose-In-Life Test and the Ryff’s Scales. The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 3(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejcop.v3i2.27
García-Alandete, J., Marco, J. H., & Pérez, S. (2017). Purpose-in-Life Test: Comparison of the main models in patients with mental disorders. The Spanish Journal of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2017.28
García-Alandete, J., Rosa, E., & Sellés, P. (2013). Estructura factorial y consistencia interna de una versión española del Purpose-In-Life Test [Factorial structure and internal consistency of a Spanish version of the Purpose-In-Life Test]. Universitas Psychologica, 12, 517-530. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.UPSY12-2.efci
García-Moratalla, B. (2008). Análisis prospectivo de las consultas sin diagnóstico de trastorno mental en un centro de salud mental [Prospective analysis of the non-diagnosed cases of mental illness in an outpatient setting] (Doctoral dissertation). Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid.
Goldberg, D.P., & Hillier, V.F. (1979). A scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire. Cambridge Journals: Psychological Medicine, 9(1), 139-45. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700021644
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999; 2011). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Nueva York, NY: The Guildford Press.
Heisel, M. J., & Flett, G. L. (2004). Purpose in life, satisfaction with life, and suicide ideation in a clinical sample. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(2), 127- 135. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000013660.22413.e0
Hill, P. L., Edmonds, G. W., & Hampson, S. E. (2017). A purposeful lifestyle is a healthful lifestyle: Linking sense of purpose to self-rated health through multiple health behaviors. Journal of Health Psychology. Online first. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105317708251
Hill, P. L., & Turiano, N. A. (2014). Purpose in life as a predictor of mortality across adulthood. Psychological Science, 25(7), 1482-1486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614531799
Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Mroczek, D. K., & Burrow, A. L. (2016). The value of a purposeful life: Sense of purpose predicts greater income and net worth. Journal of Research in Personality, 65, 38-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.07.003
Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Spiro, A., & Mroczek, D. K. (2015). Understanding interindividual variability in purpose: Longitudinal findings from the VA Normative Aging Study. Psychology and Aging, 30(3), 529-533. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000020
Hooker, S. A., Masters, K. S. (2016). Purpose in life is associated with physical activity measured by accelerometer. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(6), 962-971. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105314542822
Irving, J., Davis, S., & Collier, A. (2017). Aging with purpose: Systematic search and review of literature pertaining to older adults and purpose. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 85(4), 403-437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415017702908
Kashdan, T.B., & McKnight. P. E. (2013). Commitment to a purpose in life: An antidote to the suffering by individuals with social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 13(6), 1150-1159. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033278
Kim, E. S., Hershner, S. D., & Strecher, V. J. (2015). Purpose in life and incidence of sleep disturbances. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 38(3), 590-597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9635-4
Kim, E. S., Kawachi, I., Chen, Y., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2017). Association between purpose in life and objective measures of physical function in older adults. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(10), 1039-1045. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2145
Kim, E. S., Strecher, V. J., & Ryff, C. D. (2014). Purpose in life and use of preventive health care services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(46), 16331-16336. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1414826111
Kim, E. S., Sun, J. K., Park, N., Kubzansky, L. D., & Peterson, C. (2013). Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older US adults with coronary heart disease: A two-year follow-up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 36(2), 124-133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9406-4
Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged. A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(2), 191-198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.2.191
Lobo, A., Ezquerra, J., Gómez-Burgada, F., Sala, J. M., Seva-Díaz, A. (1979). El miniexamen cognoscitivo. Un test sencillo, práctico, para detectar alteraciones intelectuales en pacientes médicos [Cognitive miniexam. A practical and easy test to detect intelectual alterations in medical patients]. Actas Luso Españolas de Neurología Psiquiatrica y Ciencias Afines, 7(3), 189-202. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Antonio_Lobo6/publication/284696329_El_mini-examen_cognoscitivo_Un_test_sencillo_y_prctico_para_detectar_alteraciones_intelectuales_en_pacientes_mdicos/links/565d84f008ae1ef92982aa51/El-mini-examen-cognoscitivo-Un-test-sencillo-y-prctico-para-detectar-alteraciones-intelectuales-en-pacientes-mdicos.pdf
Lobo, A., Pérez-Echeverría, M. J., & Artal, J. (1986) Validity of the scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) in a Spanish population. Psychological Medicine, 16(1), 135-140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700002579
Luciano, C., Molina, F., Gutierrez-Martinez, O., Barnes-Holmes, D., Valdivia-Salas, S., Cabello, F., …. Wilson, K. G. (2010). The impact of acceptance-based versus avoidance-based protocols on discomfort. Behavior Modification, 34(2), 94-119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445509357234
Lundman, B., Aléx, L., Jonsén, E., Norberg, A., Nygren, B., Fischer, R. S., & Strandberg, G. (2010). Inner strenght. A theoretical analysis of salutogenic concepts. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(2), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.05.020
Marco, J. H., García-Alandete J., Pérez S., & Botella C. (2014). El sentido de la vida como variable mediadora entre la depresión y la desesperanza en pacientes con trastorno límite de la personalidad [Meaning in life as mediator between depression and hopelessness among borderline personality disorder patients]. Behavioral Psychology, 22(2), 291-303. Retrieved from http://repositori.uji.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10234/120322/64428.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Muthén, L. K. & Muthén, B. O. (1998; 2010). Mplus User’s Guide. Sixth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. Retrieved from https://www.statmodel.com/download/usersguide/Mplus%20Users%20Guide%20v6.pdf
Noblejas de la Flor, M. A. (2000). Fiabilidad de los tests PIL y Logo-test [Reliability of the PIL and Logo-test]. NOUS: Boletín de Logoterapia y Análisis Existencial, 4, 81-90.
Páez-Blarrina, M., Luciano, C., Gutiérrez-Martínez, O., Valdivia-Salas, S., Ortega, J., & Rodríguez-Valverde, M. (2008). The role of values with personal examples in altering the functions of pain: Comparison between acceptance-based and cognitive-control-based protocols. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(1), 84-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.008
Rodin, J., & Langer, E. J. (1977). Long-Term effects of a control-relevant intervention with the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(12), 897-902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.12.897
Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719-727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
Schaefer, S. M., Morozink-Boylan, J., Van-Reekum, C. M., Lapate, R. C., Norris, C. J., Ryff, C D., & Davison, R. J. (2013). Purpose in life predicts better emotional recovery from negative stimuli. PLoS ONE, 8(11), e80329. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080329
Schulenberg, S. E., Schnetzer, L. W., & Buchanan, E. M. (2011). The purpose in life test-short form: Development and psychometric support. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(5), 861-876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-010-9231-9
Sherman, A. C., & Simonton, S. (2012). Effects of personal meaning among patients in primary and specialized care: Associations with psychological and physical outcomes. Psychology and Health, 27(4), 475-490. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2011.592983
Sterling, M. (2011). General health questionnaire–28 (GHQ-28). Journal of Physiotherapy, 57(4), 259. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1836-9553(11)70060-1
Strack, K. M., & Schulenberg, S. E. (2009). Understanding empowerment, meaning, and perceived coercion in individuals with serious mental illness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(10), 1137-1148. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20607
Valdivia-Salas, S., Blanchard, K.S., Lombas, A.S., & Wulfert, E. (2014). Treatment-seeking precipitators in problem gambling: Analysis of data from a gambling helpline. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28(1), 300-306. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035413
Valdivia-Salas, S., Dougher, M., & Luciano, C. (2013). Derived relations and generalized alteration of preferences. Learning and Behavior, 41(2), 205-217. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13420-012-0098-y
Veenhoven, R. (1984). Conditions of Happiness. Holland, Dordrecht: Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-94-009-6432-7
Weich, S., Twigg, L., Holt, G., Lewis, G., & Jones, K. (2003). Contextual risk factors for the common mental disorders in Britain: A multilevel investigation of the effects of place. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 57, 616-621. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.57.8.616
Wiesmann, U., & Hannich, H. J. (2013). The contribution of resistance resources and sense of coherence to life satisfaction in older age. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(3), 911-928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9361-3
Wilson, K. G., & Murrell, A. R. (2004). Values work in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. In S. C. Hayes, V. Follete & M. Linehan (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive–behavioral tradition (pp. 120-151). New York, NY: Guilford.
Windsor, T. D., Curtis, R. G., & Luszcz, M. A. (2015). Sense of purpose as a psychological resource for aging well. Developmental Psychology, 51(7), 975-986. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/dev0000023
Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. (1968). The token economy: A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.
Boyle, P. A., Barnes, L. L., Buchman, A. S., & Bennet, D.A. (2009). Purpose in life is associated with mortality among community-dwelling older persons. Psychosomatic Medicine, 71(5), 574-579. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181a5a7c0
Cohen, R., Bavishi, C., & Rozanski, A. (2016). Purpose in life and its relationship to all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events: A meta-analysis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 78(2), 122-133. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000274
Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism: The psychometric approach to Frankl’s concept of noogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20(2), 200-207. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(196404)20:2<200::AID-JCLP2270200203>3.0.CO;2-U
Damon, W., Menon, J., & Bronk, K. C. (2003). The development of purpose during adolescence. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 119-128. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0703_2
Diener, E., & Larsen, R. J. (1993). The subjective experience of emotional well-being. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 405-415). New York: Guilford Press.
Ehrlich-Ben, O., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Feingold, D., Vahab, K., Amiaz, R., Weiser, M., & Lysaker, P. H. (2013). Meaning in life, insight and self-stigma among people with severe mental illness. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(2), 195-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.07.011
Frankl, V. E. (1959). Man’s search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press.
García-Alandete, J. (2015). Does meaning in life predict psychological well-being? An analysis using a Spanish versions of the Purpose-In-Life Test and the Ryff’s Scales. The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 3(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejcop.v3i2.27
García-Alandete, J., Marco, J. H., & Pérez, S. (2017). Purpose-in-Life Test: Comparison of the main models in patients with mental disorders. The Spanish Journal of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2017.28
García-Alandete, J., Rosa, E., & Sellés, P. (2013). Estructura factorial y consistencia interna de una versión española del Purpose-In-Life Test [Factorial structure and internal consistency of a Spanish version of the Purpose-In-Life Test]. Universitas Psychologica, 12, 517-530. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.UPSY12-2.efci
García-Moratalla, B. (2008). Análisis prospectivo de las consultas sin diagnóstico de trastorno mental en un centro de salud mental [Prospective analysis of the non-diagnosed cases of mental illness in an outpatient setting] (Doctoral dissertation). Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid.
Goldberg, D.P., & Hillier, V.F. (1979). A scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire. Cambridge Journals: Psychological Medicine, 9(1), 139-45. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700021644
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999; 2011). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Nueva York, NY: The Guildford Press.
Heisel, M. J., & Flett, G. L. (2004). Purpose in life, satisfaction with life, and suicide ideation in a clinical sample. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(2), 127- 135. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000013660.22413.e0
Hill, P. L., Edmonds, G. W., & Hampson, S. E. (2017). A purposeful lifestyle is a healthful lifestyle: Linking sense of purpose to self-rated health through multiple health behaviors. Journal of Health Psychology. Online first. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105317708251
Hill, P. L., & Turiano, N. A. (2014). Purpose in life as a predictor of mortality across adulthood. Psychological Science, 25(7), 1482-1486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614531799
Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Mroczek, D. K., & Burrow, A. L. (2016). The value of a purposeful life: Sense of purpose predicts greater income and net worth. Journal of Research in Personality, 65, 38-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.07.003
Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Spiro, A., & Mroczek, D. K. (2015). Understanding interindividual variability in purpose: Longitudinal findings from the VA Normative Aging Study. Psychology and Aging, 30(3), 529-533. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000020
Hooker, S. A., Masters, K. S. (2016). Purpose in life is associated with physical activity measured by accelerometer. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(6), 962-971. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105314542822
Irving, J., Davis, S., & Collier, A. (2017). Aging with purpose: Systematic search and review of literature pertaining to older adults and purpose. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 85(4), 403-437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415017702908
Kashdan, T.B., & McKnight. P. E. (2013). Commitment to a purpose in life: An antidote to the suffering by individuals with social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 13(6), 1150-1159. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033278
Kim, E. S., Hershner, S. D., & Strecher, V. J. (2015). Purpose in life and incidence of sleep disturbances. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 38(3), 590-597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9635-4
Kim, E. S., Kawachi, I., Chen, Y., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2017). Association between purpose in life and objective measures of physical function in older adults. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(10), 1039-1045. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2145
Kim, E. S., Strecher, V. J., & Ryff, C. D. (2014). Purpose in life and use of preventive health care services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(46), 16331-16336. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1414826111
Kim, E. S., Sun, J. K., Park, N., Kubzansky, L. D., & Peterson, C. (2013). Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older US adults with coronary heart disease: A two-year follow-up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 36(2), 124-133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9406-4
Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged. A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(2), 191-198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.2.191
Lobo, A., Ezquerra, J., Gómez-Burgada, F., Sala, J. M., Seva-Díaz, A. (1979). El miniexamen cognoscitivo. Un test sencillo, práctico, para detectar alteraciones intelectuales en pacientes médicos [Cognitive miniexam. A practical and easy test to detect intelectual alterations in medical patients]. Actas Luso Españolas de Neurología Psiquiatrica y Ciencias Afines, 7(3), 189-202. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Antonio_Lobo6/publication/284696329_El_mini-examen_cognoscitivo_Un_test_sencillo_y_prctico_para_detectar_alteraciones_intelectuales_en_pacientes_mdicos/links/565d84f008ae1ef92982aa51/El-mini-examen-cognoscitivo-Un-test-sencillo-y-prctico-para-detectar-alteraciones-intelectuales-en-pacientes-mdicos.pdf
Lobo, A., Pérez-Echeverría, M. J., & Artal, J. (1986) Validity of the scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) in a Spanish population. Psychological Medicine, 16(1), 135-140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700002579
Luciano, C., Molina, F., Gutierrez-Martinez, O., Barnes-Holmes, D., Valdivia-Salas, S., Cabello, F., …. Wilson, K. G. (2010). The impact of acceptance-based versus avoidance-based protocols on discomfort. Behavior Modification, 34(2), 94-119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445509357234
Lundman, B., Aléx, L., Jonsén, E., Norberg, A., Nygren, B., Fischer, R. S., & Strandberg, G. (2010). Inner strenght. A theoretical analysis of salutogenic concepts. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(2), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.05.020
Marco, J. H., García-Alandete J., Pérez S., & Botella C. (2014). El sentido de la vida como variable mediadora entre la depresión y la desesperanza en pacientes con trastorno límite de la personalidad [Meaning in life as mediator between depression and hopelessness among borderline personality disorder patients]. Behavioral Psychology, 22(2), 291-303. Retrieved from http://repositori.uji.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10234/120322/64428.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Muthén, L. K. & Muthén, B. O. (1998; 2010). Mplus User’s Guide. Sixth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. Retrieved from https://www.statmodel.com/download/usersguide/Mplus%20Users%20Guide%20v6.pdf
Noblejas de la Flor, M. A. (2000). Fiabilidad de los tests PIL y Logo-test [Reliability of the PIL and Logo-test]. NOUS: Boletín de Logoterapia y Análisis Existencial, 4, 81-90.
Páez-Blarrina, M., Luciano, C., Gutiérrez-Martínez, O., Valdivia-Salas, S., Ortega, J., & Rodríguez-Valverde, M. (2008). The role of values with personal examples in altering the functions of pain: Comparison between acceptance-based and cognitive-control-based protocols. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(1), 84-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.008
Rodin, J., & Langer, E. J. (1977). Long-Term effects of a control-relevant intervention with the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(12), 897-902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.12.897
Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719-727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
Schaefer, S. M., Morozink-Boylan, J., Van-Reekum, C. M., Lapate, R. C., Norris, C. J., Ryff, C D., & Davison, R. J. (2013). Purpose in life predicts better emotional recovery from negative stimuli. PLoS ONE, 8(11), e80329. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080329
Schulenberg, S. E., Schnetzer, L. W., & Buchanan, E. M. (2011). The purpose in life test-short form: Development and psychometric support. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(5), 861-876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-010-9231-9
Sherman, A. C., & Simonton, S. (2012). Effects of personal meaning among patients in primary and specialized care: Associations with psychological and physical outcomes. Psychology and Health, 27(4), 475-490. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2011.592983
Sterling, M. (2011). General health questionnaire–28 (GHQ-28). Journal of Physiotherapy, 57(4), 259. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1836-9553(11)70060-1
Strack, K. M., & Schulenberg, S. E. (2009). Understanding empowerment, meaning, and perceived coercion in individuals with serious mental illness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(10), 1137-1148. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20607
Valdivia-Salas, S., Blanchard, K.S., Lombas, A.S., & Wulfert, E. (2014). Treatment-seeking precipitators in problem gambling: Analysis of data from a gambling helpline. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28(1), 300-306. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035413
Valdivia-Salas, S., Dougher, M., & Luciano, C. (2013). Derived relations and generalized alteration of preferences. Learning and Behavior, 41(2), 205-217. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13420-012-0098-y
Veenhoven, R. (1984). Conditions of Happiness. Holland, Dordrecht: Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-94-009-6432-7
Weich, S., Twigg, L., Holt, G., Lewis, G., & Jones, K. (2003). Contextual risk factors for the common mental disorders in Britain: A multilevel investigation of the effects of place. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 57, 616-621. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.57.8.616
Wiesmann, U., & Hannich, H. J. (2013). The contribution of resistance resources and sense of coherence to life satisfaction in older age. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(3), 911-928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9361-3
Wilson, K. G., & Murrell, A. R. (2004). Values work in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. In S. C. Hayes, V. Follete & M. Linehan (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive–behavioral tradition (pp. 120-151). New York, NY: Guilford.
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