Keywords
pursuit of muscularity
drive for thinness
disordered eating
body mass index
How to Cite
Abstract
The female sociocultural beauty ideal is ultra-thin, while the male beauty ideal is related with a muscular body. In this paper it is argued that these differences may be explained by the gender ideology that men and women have. Data obtained from 615 female students (with a body mass index between 18 and 30) revealed that participants high in a gender ideology scale reported greater drive for thinness and less pursuit of muscularity. Additionally, women with low scores in a gender ideology scale showed the opposite pattern: high scores on pursuit of muscularity and low in drive for thinness. Finally, it is discussed why men and women adopt different strategies to deal with this sociocultural beauty.
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. http://dx.doi. org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.744053
Bekker, M., & Boselie, K. (2002). Gender and stress: Is gender role stress? A re-examination of the relationship between feminine gender role stress and eating disorders. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 18, 141-149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smi.933
Bratland-Sanda S, Sundgot-Borgen J. (2012). Symptoms of eating disorders, drive for muscularity and physical activity among Norwegian adolescents. European eating disorders review: the journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 20, 287-93. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1002/erv.1156
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences. New York: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Corral, S. Gonzáles, M. Pereña, J., & Seisdedos, N. (2006). Manual inventario de trastornos de la conducta alimentaria EDI-2[Eating disorder inventory-2. Professional manual]. Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
De Young, K.P., Lavender, J.M., & Anderson, D.A. (2010). Binge eating is not associated with elevated eating, weight, or shape concerns in the absence of the desire to lose weight in men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43, 732–736. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.20779
Forrester-Knauss, C., & Zemp, S. (2012). Gender differences in disordered eating and weight dissatisfaction in Swiss adults: which factors matter? BMC Public Health, 12, 809. http://dx.doi. org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-809
Garner, D. M. (1991). Eating disorder inventory-2. Professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Research.
Garner, D. M. (2004). Eating Disorder Inventory-3. Professional Manual. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Garner, D.M., Olmsted, M.P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional EDI for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders. 2, 15–34. http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/1098-108X(198321)2:23.0.CO;2-6
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56, 109–118. http://dx.doi. org/10.1037//003-066x.56.2.109
González-Martí, I., Fernandez-Bustos, J., ContrerasJordan, O., & Mayville, S. (2012). Validation of a Spanish version of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale: Escala de Satisfacción Muscular. Body Image, 9, 517-523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. bodyim.2012.05.002
Grieve, F. G. (2007). A conceptual model of factors contributing to the development of muscle dysmorphia. Eating Disorders, 15, 63-80. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/10640260601044535
Grogan, S., & Richards, H. (2002). Body image: Focus groups with boys and men. Men and Masculinities, 4, 219–233. http://dx.doi. org/10.1177/1097184X02004003001
Grossbard, J., Lee, C., Neighbors, C., & Larimer, M. (2009) Body Image Concerns and Contingent Self-Esteem in Male and Female College Students. Sex Roles, 60, 198-207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-008-9535-y.
Hudson, J.I., Hiripi, E., Pope, H.G., & Kessler, R.C. (2007). The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological psychiatry, 61, 348–358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.040
Levant, R. F. (1996). The New Psychology of Men. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 27, 259- 265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.27.3.259
Levant, R., & Richmond, K. (2007). A Review of Research on Masculinity Ideologies Using the Male Role Norms Inventory. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 15, 130-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.3149/jms.1502.130
Levitt, D. (2004). Drive for Thinness and Fear of Fat among College Women: Implications for Practice and Assessment. Journal of College Counseling, 7, 109- 117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2004. tb00242.x
Magallares, A. (2013). Masculinity, drive for muscularity, and eating concerns in a sample of men. Suma Psicologica, 20, 83-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.14349/ sumapsi2013.1353
Mayville, S.B., Williamson, D.A., White, M.A., Netemeyer, R.G., & Drab, D.L. (2002). Development of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale: A self-report measure for the assessment of muscle dysmorphia symptoms. Assessment, 9, 351–360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191102238156
McCabe, M.P. & Ricciardelli, L.A. (2004). Body image dissatisfaction among males across the lifespan: A review of past literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 56, 675–685. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0022-3999(03)00129-6
McCreary, D. R., Saucier, D. M., & Courtenay, W. H. (2005). The drive for muscularity and masculinity: Testing the associations among gender-role traits, behaviors, attitudes, and conflict. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 83-94. http://dx.doi. org/10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.83
Mitchison D, Hay, P., Slewa-Younan, S., & Mond, J. (2012). Time Trends in Population Prevalence of Eating Disorder Behaviors and Their Relationship to Quality of Life. PLoS ONE, 7, 1-7. http://dx.doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048450
Moore, T. M., & Stuart, G. L. (2004). Effects of masculine gender role stress on men’s cognitive, affective, physiological, and aggressive responses to intimate conflict situations. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5, 132-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1524- 9220.5.2.132
Morgan, J. (2012). Male eating disorders. In A. June & J. Treasure (eds.), A collaborative approach to eating disorders (pp. 272-278). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Mosley, P. (2009). Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia. European Eating Disorders Review, 17, 191-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/erv.89
Moya, M.C., Navas, M., & Gómez, C. (1991). Escala sobre Ideología del Rol Sexual [Gender Ideology Scale]. Libro de comunicaciones del III Congreso Nacional de Psicología Social. Vol.1. Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Act of congress (pp. 554-566).
Moya, M., Expósito, F., & Padilla, J. L. (2006). Revisión de las propiedades psicométricas de las versiones larga y reducida de la escala sobre ideología de género [Review of psychometric properties of the long and the short versions of the Gender Ideology Scale]. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 6, 709-727.
Murnen, S. K., & Smolak, L. (1997). Femininity, masculinity, and disordered eating: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22, 231–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098- 108X(199711)22:33.0.CO;2-O
Murray, S. B., Rieger, E., Touyz, S. W., & De la Garza, Y. (2010). Muscle dysmorphia and the DSM-V conundrum: Where does it belong? A review paper. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43, 483- 491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.20828.
Olivardia, R. (2001). Mirror, mirror on the wall, who’s the largest of them all? The features and phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 254-259. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/10673220127900
Pleck, J. H., Sonenstein, F. L., & Ku, L. C. (1993). Masculinity ideology: Its impact on adolescent males’ heterosexual relationships. Journal of Social Issues, 49, 11-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993. tb01166.x
Pope, H. G., Gruber, A., Choi, P., Olivardia, R., & Phillips, K. (1997). Muscle dysmorphia: An under recognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychomatics, 38, 548-557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0033-3182(97)71400-2
Pritchard, M. (2008). Disordered Eating in Undergraduates: Does Gender Role Orientation Influence Men and Women the Same Way? Sex Roles, 59, 282-289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-008-9449-8
Robert, C., Munroe-Chandler, K. & Gammage, K. (2009). The relationship between the drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia in male and female weight trainers. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23, 1656-1662. http://dx.doi. org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181b3dc2f.
Rodgers, R.F., Ganchou, C., Franko, D.L., & Chabrol, H. (2012). Drive for muscularity and disordered eating among French adolescent boys: a sociocultural model. Body Image, 9, 318-323. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.03.002
Smolak, L., & Stein, J. A. (2006). The relationship of drive for muscularity to sociocultural factors, selfesteem, physical attribute gender role, and socialcomparison in middle school boys. Body Image, 3, 121–129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.03.002
Steinfeldt, J., Carter, H., Benton, E., & Steinfeldt, M. (2011). Muscularity Beliefs of Female College Student-Athletes. Sex Roles, 64, 543-554. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9935-2.
Striegel-Moore, R.H., Rosselli, F., Perrin, N., DeBar, L., Wilson, G.T., May, A., & Kraemer, H.C. (2009). Gender difference in the prevalence of eating disorder symptoms. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 42, 471-474. http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/eat.20625
Suelves, J. (2006). Eating Disorders: A Public Health Concern in Developed Countries. PsycCRITIQUES, 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0003393
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M. N., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington: American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10312-000
Turner, E., Dobson, J. & Pocock, S. (2010).Categorisation of continuous risk factors in epidemiological publications: a survey of current practice. Epidemiologic Perspectives & Innovations, 7, 9. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1186/1742-5573-7-9
Williams, R. J., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2001). Sex-role traits and the comorbidity of symptoms of disordered eating and problem drinking. Eating Behaviours, 2, 67–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1471- 0153(00)00024-6
This journal is registered under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License. Thus, this work may be reproduced, distributed, and publicly shared in digital format, as long as the names of the authors and Pontificia Universidad Javeriana are acknowledged. Others are allowed to quote, adapt, transform, auto-archive, republish, and create based on this material, for any purpose (even commercial ones), provided the authorship is duly acknowledged, a link to the original work is provided, and it is specified if changes have been made. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana does not hold the rights of published works and the authors are solely responsible for the contents of their works; they keep the moral, intellectual, privacy, and publicity rights. Approving the intervention of the work (review, copy-editing, translation, layout) and the following outreach, are granted through an use license and not through an assignment of rights. This means the journal and Pontificia Universidad Javeriana cannot be held responsible for any ethical malpractice by the authors. As a consequence of the protection granted by the use license, the journal is not required to publish recantations or modify information already published, unless the errata stems from the editorial management process. Publishing contents in this journal does not generate royalties for contributors.