Pharmacological prophylaxis of early post-traumatic epileptic seizures.
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Oct 28, 2020
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Suad Siuffi Campo
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5357-0005
Natalia Jiménez Cardozo
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7206-499X
Alejandro Herrera Trujillo
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9775-9405
Lina Vanessa Becerra Hernández
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4468-6716
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5357-0005
Natalia Jiménez Cardozo
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7206-499X
Alejandro Herrera Trujillo
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9775-9405
Lina Vanessa Becerra Hernández
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4468-6716
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Abstract
Taking into account the high incidence and prevalence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in our environment and recognizing epilepsy as one of the most common sequelae after trauma, it is important to know which drugs have high clinical effectiveness in prophylactic therapy for prevention of it. The objective of this article is to carry out a Topic Review according to what has been published in the recent literature. The search was carried out in the Pubmed, Uptodate and Scielo databases. It has been shown that the drugs of choice for post-traumatic epileptic seizures are anticonvulsants. Data on other pharmacological groups were reviewed. It was concluded that epileptic seizures continue to be one of the most frequent complications after suffering an episode of TBI, and the literature reports that prophylactic therapy is useful for the prevention of early epileptic seizures, but there is no clarity or consensus regarding the difference in effectiveness with use. Levetiracetam has evidence in favor, both for its effectiveness and for its safety, given its mechanism of action and should be studied in depth, as it would also be one of the candidates as an antiepileptogenic drug.
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References
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2. Henao A, Puerta N, Arcilla L. Manejo prehospitalario del trauma craneoencefálico por accidente de tránsito en la ciudad de Medellín Universidad CES; 2008.
3. Agustin D, Pahnke P, Piñero G, Videtta W, Aguilera S. Cuidados Intensivos en el trauma craneoencefálico grave. Acncx.org. 2017
4. Maas AI, Stocchetti N, Bullock R. Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7: 728-41
5. Gennarelli TA. Mechanisms of brain injury. J Emerg Med. 1993;11 Suppl 1:5-11.
6. Klein P, Tyrlikova I. Prevention of epilepsy: Should we be avoiding clinical trials? Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2018
7. Medina Marín A, Escobar M. Sistema glutamatérgico, primera parte: Sinaptología, homeostasis y muerte celular 2018
8. Bergles D E, Diamond J S, Jahr C E. Clearance of glutamate inside the synapse and beyond. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1999; 9:29-38.
9. Prast H, PhilippuA. Nitric oxide as a modulator of neuronal function. Prog in Neurob 2001;64:51-68.
10. Kiss J, Vizi S. Nitric oxide. A novel link between synaptic and nonsynaptyc transmission. Trends in Neurosc 2001; 4(4): 211-5.
11. Sasaki M, Dawson V, Dawson T. The no signallingin thebrain. In: ReithMEA, editor. Cerebral signal transduction. From first to fourth messengers. Totowa: Humana Press; 2000. p. 151-74.
12. Barger S, Basile A. Activation of microglia by secreted amyloid precursor protein evokes reléase of glutamate by cystine exchange and attenuates synaptic function. J Neurochem 2001; 76(3): 846-54.
13. Pitkänen A, Bolkvadze T. Head trauma and epilepsy; 2012.
14. Hunt RFI, Boychuk JA, Smith BN. Neural circuit mechanisms of post-traumatic epilepsy. Front Cell Neurosci 2013;7:89.
15. Dudek FE, Staley KJ. The time course and circuit mechanisms of acquired epileptogenesis; 2012.
16. Riascos D et al. Neurodegenerative diversity in human cortical contusion: histological analysis of tissue derived from decompressive craniectomy. - PubMed - NCBI 2018
17. Prince DA, Parada I, Graber K. Traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic epilepsy; 2012.
18. Liu G, Gu B, He X-P, Joshi RB,Wackerle HD, Rodriguiz RM, et al. Transient inhibition of TrkB kinase after status epilepticus prevents development of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuron 2013;79:31-8.
19. McDaniel SS,Wong M. Therapeutic role of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition in preventing epileptogenesis. Neurosci Lett 2011;497:231-9.
20. Drexel M, Puhakka N, Kirchmair E, Hörtnagl H, Pitkänen A, Sperk G. Expression of GABA receptor subunits in the hippocampus and thalamus after experimental traumatic brain injury. Neuropharmacology 2015;88:122-33.
21. González M, Lopera W, Arango A. Manual de Terapéutica. 17th ed. Medellín: Corporación para investigaciones biológicas (CIB); 2016.
22. Lexicomp, INC. Phenytoin: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com
23. Lexicomp, INC. Valproate: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com (Accessed on July 07, 2018)
24. Lexicomp, INC. Carbamazepine: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com
25. Lexicomp, INC. Levetiracetam: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com
26. Surges, R., Volynski, K. E., & Walker, M. C. (2008). Is levetiracetam different from other antiepileptic drugs? Levetiracetam and its cellular mechanism of action in epilepsy revisited. Therapeutic advances in neurological disorders, 1(1), 13-24.
27. Jedrzejczak J et al. An observational study of first-line valproate monotherapy in focal epilepsy. - PubMed - NCBI 2018
28. Khan NR, VanLandingham MA, Fierst TM, et al. Should levetiracetam or phenytoin be used for posttraumatic seizure prophylaxis? a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Neurosurgery 2016; 79:775–782.
29. Jones KE, Puccio AM, Harshman KJ, Falcione B, Benedict N, Jankowitz BT, et al. Levetiracetam versus phenytoin for seizure prophylaxis in severe traumatic brain injury. Neurosurg Focus 2008;25(4):E3.
30. Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, et al. Antiseizure prophylaxis. J Neurotrauma 2007;24:S-83-6.
31. Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, et al. A randomized, doubleblind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med 1990;323:497-502.
32. Kruer R, Harris L, Goodwin H, Kornbluth J, Thomas K, Slater L et al. Changing trends in the use of seizure prophylaxis after traumatic brain injury: A shift from phenytoin to levetiracetam
33. Zimmermann LL e. Treatment options for posttraumatic epilepsy. - PubMed - NCBI 2018
34. Wilson C, Burks J, Rodgers R, Evans R, Bakare A, Safavi-Abbasi S. Early and Late Posttraumatic Epilepsy in the Setting of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Meta-analysis and Review of Antiepileptic Management Author links open overlay panel 2018
35. Carney N, Totten AM, O’Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery 2017; 80:6–15. The most recently updated guidelines published by the brain trauma foundation on the management of severe TBI, September 2016
36. Yan HD, Ji-qun C, Ishihara K, et al. Separation of antiepileptogenic and antiseizure effects of levetiracetam in the spontaneously epileptic rat (SER). Epilepsia 2005;46:1170–1177.
37. Mazarati AM, Baldwin RA, Klitgaard H, et al. Treatment with levetiracetam during the latent period after experimental status epilepticus reduces chronic spontaneous recurrent seizures. Epilepsia 2003;44(Suppl. 9):223.
38. Sugaya Y, Maru E, Kudo K, et al. Levetiracetam suppresses development of spontaneous EEG seizures and aberrant neurogenesis following kainate-induced status epilepticus. Brain Res 2010;1352:187–199.
39. Kaminski RM, Rogawski MA, Klitgaard H. The potential of antiseizure drugs and agents that act on novel molecular targets as antiepileptogenic treatments. Neurotherapeutics 2014;11:385–400.
40. Zou H, Brayer SW, HurwitzM, Niyonkuru C, Fowler LE,Wagner AK. Neuroprotective, neuroplastic, and neurobehavioral effects of daily treatment with levetiracetam in experimental traumatic brain injury. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2013;27:878-88.
41. Shetty AK. Prospects of levetiracetam as a neuroprotective drug against status epilepticus, traumatic brain injury, and stroke. Front Neurol 2013, 4 Nov:1–6.
42. Willmore LJ. Post-traumatic epilepsy: cellular mechanisms and implications for treatment. Epilepsia 1990;31(Suppl. 3):S67–73.
43. Gusakov I V, Ivanenko AI, Grantyn VA, Laur OI. Neurophysiologic and histopathologic correlates of the effect of deferoxamine on the formation of an epileptic focus during blood injection into the rat cerebral cortex. Patol Fiziol Eksp Ter n.d.:4–6.
44. Danbolt NC. Glutamate uptake. Prog in Neurob 2001; 65: 1-105
45. Mishra M, Singh R, Mukherjee S, Sharma D. Dehydroepiandrosterone's antiepileptic action in FeCl3-induced epileptogenesis involves upregulation of glutamate transporters. Epilepsy Res 2013;106:83–91.
46. Goodrich GS, Kabakov AY, Hameed MQ, Dhamne SC, Rosenberg PA, Rotenberg A. Ceftriaxone treatment after traumatic brain injury restores expression of the glutamate transporter, GLT-1, reduces regional gliosis, and reduces post-traumatic seizures in the rat. J Neurotrauma 2013;30:1434-41.
47. Jung KH, Chu K, Lee ST, Kim J, Sinn DI, Kim JM, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, inhibits the altered hippocampal neurogenesis with attenuation of spontaneous recurrent seizures following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis 2006;23:237-46.
48. Bar-Klein G, Cacheaux LP, Kamintsky L, Prager O, Weissberg I, Schoknecht K, et al. Losartan prevents acquired epilepsy via TGF-β signaling suppression. Ann Neurol 2014;75:864-75.
49. Gao F, Liu Y, Li X, Wang Y, Wei D, Jiang W. Fingolimod (FTY720) inhibits neuroinflammation and attenuates spontaneous convulsions in lithium-pilocarpine induced status epilepticus in rat model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012;103:187-96.
50. Chu K, Jung KH, Lee ST, Kim JH, Kang KM, Kim HK, et al. Erythropoietin reduces epileptogenic processes following status epilepticus. Epilepsia 2008;49:1723-32.
51. Jung KH, Chu K, Lee ST, Park K Il, KimJH, Kang KM, et al. Molecular alterations underlying epileptogenesis after prolonged febrile seizure and modulation by erythropoietin. Epilepsia 2011;52:541-50.
52. Sandsmark DK, Pelletier C, Weber JD, Gutmann DH. Mammalian target of rapamycin: master regulator of cell growth in the nervous system. Histol Histopathol 2007;22:895–903.
53. Guo D, Zeng L, Brody DL,Wong M. Rapamycin attenuates the development of posttraumatic epilepsy in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury. PLoS One 2013;8.
54. Pitkänen A, Nehlig A, Brooks-Kayal AR, Dudek FE, Friedman D, Galanopoulou AS, et al. Issues related to development of antiepileptogenic therapies. Epilepsia 2013; 54(Suppl. 4):35–43.
55. White HS, Löscher W. Searching for the ideal antiepileptogenic agent in experimental models: single treatment versus combinatorial treatment strategies. Neurotherapeutics 2014;11:373-84.
56. Löscher W. Single versus combinatorial therapies in status epilepticus: novel data from preclinical models. Epilepsy Behav 2015;49:20-5.
2. Henao A, Puerta N, Arcilla L. Manejo prehospitalario del trauma craneoencefálico por accidente de tránsito en la ciudad de Medellín Universidad CES; 2008.
3. Agustin D, Pahnke P, Piñero G, Videtta W, Aguilera S. Cuidados Intensivos en el trauma craneoencefálico grave. Acncx.org. 2017
4. Maas AI, Stocchetti N, Bullock R. Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7: 728-41
5. Gennarelli TA. Mechanisms of brain injury. J Emerg Med. 1993;11 Suppl 1:5-11.
6. Klein P, Tyrlikova I. Prevention of epilepsy: Should we be avoiding clinical trials? Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2018
7. Medina Marín A, Escobar M. Sistema glutamatérgico, primera parte: Sinaptología, homeostasis y muerte celular 2018
8. Bergles D E, Diamond J S, Jahr C E. Clearance of glutamate inside the synapse and beyond. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1999; 9:29-38.
9. Prast H, PhilippuA. Nitric oxide as a modulator of neuronal function. Prog in Neurob 2001;64:51-68.
10. Kiss J, Vizi S. Nitric oxide. A novel link between synaptic and nonsynaptyc transmission. Trends in Neurosc 2001; 4(4): 211-5.
11. Sasaki M, Dawson V, Dawson T. The no signallingin thebrain. In: ReithMEA, editor. Cerebral signal transduction. From first to fourth messengers. Totowa: Humana Press; 2000. p. 151-74.
12. Barger S, Basile A. Activation of microglia by secreted amyloid precursor protein evokes reléase of glutamate by cystine exchange and attenuates synaptic function. J Neurochem 2001; 76(3): 846-54.
13. Pitkänen A, Bolkvadze T. Head trauma and epilepsy; 2012.
14. Hunt RFI, Boychuk JA, Smith BN. Neural circuit mechanisms of post-traumatic epilepsy. Front Cell Neurosci 2013;7:89.
15. Dudek FE, Staley KJ. The time course and circuit mechanisms of acquired epileptogenesis; 2012.
16. Riascos D et al. Neurodegenerative diversity in human cortical contusion: histological analysis of tissue derived from decompressive craniectomy. - PubMed - NCBI 2018
17. Prince DA, Parada I, Graber K. Traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic epilepsy; 2012.
18. Liu G, Gu B, He X-P, Joshi RB,Wackerle HD, Rodriguiz RM, et al. Transient inhibition of TrkB kinase after status epilepticus prevents development of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuron 2013;79:31-8.
19. McDaniel SS,Wong M. Therapeutic role of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition in preventing epileptogenesis. Neurosci Lett 2011;497:231-9.
20. Drexel M, Puhakka N, Kirchmair E, Hörtnagl H, Pitkänen A, Sperk G. Expression of GABA receptor subunits in the hippocampus and thalamus after experimental traumatic brain injury. Neuropharmacology 2015;88:122-33.
21. González M, Lopera W, Arango A. Manual de Terapéutica. 17th ed. Medellín: Corporación para investigaciones biológicas (CIB); 2016.
22. Lexicomp, INC. Phenytoin: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com
23. Lexicomp, INC. Valproate: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com (Accessed on July 07, 2018)
24. Lexicomp, INC. Carbamazepine: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com
25. Lexicomp, INC. Levetiracetam: Drug information. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. . https://www.uptodate.com
26. Surges, R., Volynski, K. E., & Walker, M. C. (2008). Is levetiracetam different from other antiepileptic drugs? Levetiracetam and its cellular mechanism of action in epilepsy revisited. Therapeutic advances in neurological disorders, 1(1), 13-24.
27. Jedrzejczak J et al. An observational study of first-line valproate monotherapy in focal epilepsy. - PubMed - NCBI 2018
28. Khan NR, VanLandingham MA, Fierst TM, et al. Should levetiracetam or phenytoin be used for posttraumatic seizure prophylaxis? a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Neurosurgery 2016; 79:775–782.
29. Jones KE, Puccio AM, Harshman KJ, Falcione B, Benedict N, Jankowitz BT, et al. Levetiracetam versus phenytoin for seizure prophylaxis in severe traumatic brain injury. Neurosurg Focus 2008;25(4):E3.
30. Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, et al. Antiseizure prophylaxis. J Neurotrauma 2007;24:S-83-6.
31. Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, et al. A randomized, doubleblind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med 1990;323:497-502.
32. Kruer R, Harris L, Goodwin H, Kornbluth J, Thomas K, Slater L et al. Changing trends in the use of seizure prophylaxis after traumatic brain injury: A shift from phenytoin to levetiracetam
33. Zimmermann LL e. Treatment options for posttraumatic epilepsy. - PubMed - NCBI 2018
34. Wilson C, Burks J, Rodgers R, Evans R, Bakare A, Safavi-Abbasi S. Early and Late Posttraumatic Epilepsy in the Setting of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Meta-analysis and Review of Antiepileptic Management Author links open overlay panel 2018
35. Carney N, Totten AM, O’Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery 2017; 80:6–15. The most recently updated guidelines published by the brain trauma foundation on the management of severe TBI, September 2016
36. Yan HD, Ji-qun C, Ishihara K, et al. Separation of antiepileptogenic and antiseizure effects of levetiracetam in the spontaneously epileptic rat (SER). Epilepsia 2005;46:1170–1177.
37. Mazarati AM, Baldwin RA, Klitgaard H, et al. Treatment with levetiracetam during the latent period after experimental status epilepticus reduces chronic spontaneous recurrent seizures. Epilepsia 2003;44(Suppl. 9):223.
38. Sugaya Y, Maru E, Kudo K, et al. Levetiracetam suppresses development of spontaneous EEG seizures and aberrant neurogenesis following kainate-induced status epilepticus. Brain Res 2010;1352:187–199.
39. Kaminski RM, Rogawski MA, Klitgaard H. The potential of antiseizure drugs and agents that act on novel molecular targets as antiepileptogenic treatments. Neurotherapeutics 2014;11:385–400.
40. Zou H, Brayer SW, HurwitzM, Niyonkuru C, Fowler LE,Wagner AK. Neuroprotective, neuroplastic, and neurobehavioral effects of daily treatment with levetiracetam in experimental traumatic brain injury. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2013;27:878-88.
41. Shetty AK. Prospects of levetiracetam as a neuroprotective drug against status epilepticus, traumatic brain injury, and stroke. Front Neurol 2013, 4 Nov:1–6.
42. Willmore LJ. Post-traumatic epilepsy: cellular mechanisms and implications for treatment. Epilepsia 1990;31(Suppl. 3):S67–73.
43. Gusakov I V, Ivanenko AI, Grantyn VA, Laur OI. Neurophysiologic and histopathologic correlates of the effect of deferoxamine on the formation of an epileptic focus during blood injection into the rat cerebral cortex. Patol Fiziol Eksp Ter n.d.:4–6.
44. Danbolt NC. Glutamate uptake. Prog in Neurob 2001; 65: 1-105
45. Mishra M, Singh R, Mukherjee S, Sharma D. Dehydroepiandrosterone's antiepileptic action in FeCl3-induced epileptogenesis involves upregulation of glutamate transporters. Epilepsy Res 2013;106:83–91.
46. Goodrich GS, Kabakov AY, Hameed MQ, Dhamne SC, Rosenberg PA, Rotenberg A. Ceftriaxone treatment after traumatic brain injury restores expression of the glutamate transporter, GLT-1, reduces regional gliosis, and reduces post-traumatic seizures in the rat. J Neurotrauma 2013;30:1434-41.
47. Jung KH, Chu K, Lee ST, Kim J, Sinn DI, Kim JM, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, inhibits the altered hippocampal neurogenesis with attenuation of spontaneous recurrent seizures following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis 2006;23:237-46.
48. Bar-Klein G, Cacheaux LP, Kamintsky L, Prager O, Weissberg I, Schoknecht K, et al. Losartan prevents acquired epilepsy via TGF-β signaling suppression. Ann Neurol 2014;75:864-75.
49. Gao F, Liu Y, Li X, Wang Y, Wei D, Jiang W. Fingolimod (FTY720) inhibits neuroinflammation and attenuates spontaneous convulsions in lithium-pilocarpine induced status epilepticus in rat model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012;103:187-96.
50. Chu K, Jung KH, Lee ST, Kim JH, Kang KM, Kim HK, et al. Erythropoietin reduces epileptogenic processes following status epilepticus. Epilepsia 2008;49:1723-32.
51. Jung KH, Chu K, Lee ST, Park K Il, KimJH, Kang KM, et al. Molecular alterations underlying epileptogenesis after prolonged febrile seizure and modulation by erythropoietin. Epilepsia 2011;52:541-50.
52. Sandsmark DK, Pelletier C, Weber JD, Gutmann DH. Mammalian target of rapamycin: master regulator of cell growth in the nervous system. Histol Histopathol 2007;22:895–903.
53. Guo D, Zeng L, Brody DL,Wong M. Rapamycin attenuates the development of posttraumatic epilepsy in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury. PLoS One 2013;8.
54. Pitkänen A, Nehlig A, Brooks-Kayal AR, Dudek FE, Friedman D, Galanopoulou AS, et al. Issues related to development of antiepileptogenic therapies. Epilepsia 2013; 54(Suppl. 4):35–43.
55. White HS, Löscher W. Searching for the ideal antiepileptogenic agent in experimental models: single treatment versus combinatorial treatment strategies. Neurotherapeutics 2014;11:373-84.
56. Löscher W. Single versus combinatorial therapies in status epilepticus: novel data from preclinical models. Epilepsy Behav 2015;49:20-5.
How to Cite
Siuffi Campo, S., Jiménez Cardozo, N., Herrera Trujillo, A., & Becerra Hernández, L. V. (2020). Pharmacological prophylaxis of early post-traumatic epileptic seizures. Universitas Medica, 61(4). https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed61-4.prof
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