Publicado abr 23, 2013



PLUMX
Almetrics
 
Dimensions
 

Google Scholar
 
Search GoogleScholar


Jorge Mario Rodríguez-Fernández

Mary García-Acero

Pamela Franco

##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##

Resumen

Actualmente existe gran cantidad de información relacionada con el estrés y sus efectos. Por eso, este artículo se enfoca en el efecto de las hormonas del estrés en diversas áreas cerebrales, como lo son estructuras límbicas y en el eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-adrenal. Así mismo, se discutirá cómo el estrés repetitivo lleva a modificaciones en dichas áreas por el efecto de los glucocorticoides, pues dichas hormonas alteran la actividad basal de la amígdala, del hipocampo y de la corteza prefrontal medial, la función del eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-adrenal y funciones cognitivas como la memoria. Sin embargo, el mecanismo mediante el cual se producen dichos cambios es poco comprendido. Por eso, un reto a futuro es ligar los cambios celulares con sus efectos comportamentales, con el fin de entender su relación con el organismo in vivo.

Keywords

Glucocorticoid, stress, memory, depression, glucocorticoide, estrés, memoria, depresión,

References
1. Pacak K, Palkovits M. Stressor specificity of central neuroendocrine responses:implications for stress-related disorders. Endocr Rev. 2001;22:502-48.
2. Llinás RR. I of the vortex:from neurons to self. In Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press; 2001.
3. Hibberd C, Yau JL, Seckl JR. Glucocorticoids and the ageing hippocampus. J Anat. 2000;197:553-62.
4. Ziegler DR, Herman JP. Neurocircuitry of stress integration: anatomical pathways regulating the hypothalamo pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the rat. Integr Comp Biol. 2002;42:541-51.
5. Kalogeras KT, Nieman LK, Friedman TC, Doppman JL, Cutler GB, Jr., Chrousos GP, et al. Inferior petrosal sinus sampling in healthy subjects reveals a unilateral corticotropin-releasing hormone-induced arginine vasopressin release associated with ipsilateral adrenocorticotropin secretion. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:2045-50.
6. Keller-Wood ME, Dallman MF. Corticosteroid inhibition of ACTH secretion. Endocr Rev. 1984;5:1-24.
7. Kovacs KJ, Foldes A, Sawchenko PE. Glucocorticoid negative feedback selectively targets vasopressin transcription in parvocellular neurosecretory neurons. J Neurosci. 2000;20:3843-52.
8. Herman JP, Tasker JG, Ziegler DR, Cullinan WE. Local circuit regulation of paraventricular nucleus stress integration: glutamate-GABA connections. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2002;71(3):457-68.
9. De Kloet ER, Vreugdenhil E, Oitzl MS, Joels M. Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocr Rev. 1998;19:269-301.
10. Herman JP, Figueiredo H, Mueller NK, Ulrich-Lai Y, Ostrander MM, Choi DC, et al. Central mechanisms of stress integration:hierarchical circuitry controlling hypothalamo-pituitary adrenocortical responsiveness. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2003;24:151-80.
11. Lanneau D, Brunet M, Frisan E, Solary E, Fontenay M, Garrido C. Heat shock proteins:essential proteins for apoptosis regulation. J Cell Mol Med. 2008;12:743-61.
12. Hayashi R, Wada H, Ito K, Adcock IM. Effects of glucocorticoids on gene transcription. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;500:51-62.
13. Dokas LA, Schlatter LK, Barr CS. Corticosteroid-induced proteins in brain. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1994;746:157-63.
14. Fukudo S, Abe K, Itoyama Y, Mochizuki S, Sawai T, Hongo M. Psychophysiological stress induces heat shock cognate protein 70 messenger RNA in the hippocampus of rats. Neuroscience. 1999;91:1205-8.
15. Dostert A, Heinzel T. Negative glucocorticoid receptor response elements and their role in glucocorticoid action. Curr Pharm Des. 2004;10:2807-16.
16. Datson NA, Morsink MC, Meijer OC, de Kloet ER. Central corticosteroid actions:Search for gene targets. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;583:272-89.
17. Karst H, Berger S, Turiault M, Tronche F, Schutz G, Joels M. Mineralocorticoid receptors are indispensable for nongenomic modulation of hippocampal glutamate transmission by corticosterone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:19204-7.
18. Venero C, Borrell J. Rapid glucocorticoid effects on excitatory amino acid levels in the hippocampus:a microdialysis study in freely moving rats. Eur J Neurosci. 1999;11:2465-73.
19. Joels M. Corticosteroid effects in the brain:U-shape it. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2006;27:244-50.
20. Kademian SM, Bignante AE, Lardone P, McEwen BS, Volosin M. Biphasic effects of adrenal steroids on learned helplessness behavior induced by inescapable shock. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30:58-66.
21. Sandi C, Loscertales M, Guaza C. Experience-dependent facilitating effect of corticosterone on spatial memory formation in the water maze. Eur J Neurosci. 1997;9:637-42.
22. Joels M, de Kloet ER. Effects of glucocorticoids and norepinephrine on the excitability in the hippocampus. Science. 1989;245:1502-5.
23. Beck SG, Choi KC, List TJ, Okuhara DY, Birnsteil S. Corticosterone alters 5-HT1A receptor-mediated hyperpolarization in area CA1 hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1996;14:27-33.
24. Diamond DM, Bennett MC, Fleshner M, Rose GM. Inverted-U relationship between the level of peripheral corticosterone and the magnitude of hippocampal primed burst potentiation. Hippocampus. 1992;2:421-30.
25. Hesen W, Joels M. Modulation of 5HT1A responsiveness in CA1 pyramidal neurons by in vivo activation of corticosteroid receptors. J Neuroendocrinol. 1996;8:433-8.
26. Joels M, Karten Y, Hesen W, de Kloet ER. Corticosteroid effects on electrical properties of brain cells: temporal aspects and role of anti-glucocorticoids. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1997;22:S81-6.
27. Karst H, Karten YJ, Reichardt HM, de Kloet ER, Schutz G, Joels M. Corticosteroid actions in hippocampus require DNA binding of glucocorticoid receptor homodimers. Nat Neurosci. 2000;3:977-8.
28. Abraham IM, Harkany T, Horvath KM, Luiten PG. Action of glucocorticoids on survival of nerve cells:promoting neurodegeneration or neuroprotection? J Neuroendocrinol. 2001;13:749-60.
29. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging:the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocr Rev. 1986 ;7:284-301.
30. Tronson NC, Taylor JR. Molecular mechanisms of memory reconsolidation. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007;8:262-75.
31. Hebb DO. The organization of behavior: a neuropsychological theory. New York: Wiley; 1949.
32. Scoville WB, Milner B. Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000;12:103-13.
33. Bermúdez-Rattoni F. Neural plasticity and memory: from genes to brain imaging. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2007.
34. Kesner RP, Martinez JL. Neurobiology of learning and memory. 2nd ed. Boston Mass: Elsevier Academic Press; 2007.
35. Bliss TV, Collingridge GL. A synaptic model of memory: long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Nature. 1993;7(361):31-9.
36. Clayton NS, Krebs JR. Hippocampal growth and attrition in birds affected by experience. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994;91:7410-4.
37. McNaughton N, Morris RG. Chlordiazepoxide, an anxiolytic benzodiazepine, impairs place navigation in rats. Behav Brain Res. 1987;24:39-46.
38. Levy WB, Steward O. Synapses as associative memory elements in the hippocampal formation. Brain Res. 1979;175:233-45.
39. Squire LR, Stark CE, Clark RE. The medial temporal lobe. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2004;27:279-306.
40. Wittenberg GM, Tsien JZ. An emerging molecular and cellular framework for memory processing by the hippocampus. Trends Neurosci. 2002;25:501-5.
41. Calfa G, Bussolino D, Molina VA. Involvement of the lateral septum and the ventral Hippocampus in the emotional sequelae induced by social defeat: role of glucocorticoid receptors. Behav Brain Res. 2007;181:23-34.
42. Pothuizen HH, Zhang WN, Jongen-Relo AL, Feldon J, Yee BK. Dissociation of function between the dorsal and the ventral hippocampus in spatial learning abilities of the rat:a within-subject, within-task comparison of reference and working spatial memory. Eur J Neurosci. 2004;19:705-12.
43. McGaugh JL, McIntyre CK, Power AE. Amygdala modulation of memory consolidation: interaction with other brain systems. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2002;78:539-52.
44. Glavin GB. Stress and brain noradrenaline: a review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1985;9:233-43.
45. Sandi C, Pinelo-Nava MT. Stress and memory:behavioral effects and neurobiological mechanisms. Neural Plast. 2007;2007:78970.
46. McEwen BS, Seeman T. Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress. Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;896:30-47.
47. Conrad CD, Lupien SJ, McEwen BS. Support for a bimodal role for type II adrenal steroid receptors in spatial memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 1999;72:39-46.
48. Morris RG, Anderson E, Lynch GS, Baudry M. Selective impairment of learning and blockade of long-term potentiation by an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, AP5. Nature. 1986;319:774-6.
49. Roozendaal B. Systems mediating acute glucocorticoid effects on memory consolidation and retrieval. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2003;27:1213-23.
50. LaBar KS, Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2006;7:54-64.
51. Joels M, Krugers HJ. LTP after stress: up or down? Neural Plast. 2007;2007:93202.
52. De Kloet ER, Karst H, Joels M. Corticosteroid hormones in the central stress response:quick-and-slow. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2008;29:268-72.
53. Joels M, Karst H, DeRijk R, de Kloet ER. The coming out of the brain mineralocorticoid receptor. Trends Neurosci. 2008;31:1-7.
54. De Kloet ER, Joels M, Holsboer F. Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005;6:463-75.
55. Diamond DM, Park CR, Woodson JC. Stress generates emotional memories and retrograde amnesia by inducing an endogenous form of hippocampal LTP. Hippocampus. 2004;14:281-91.
56. Joels M, Karst H, Krugers HJ, Lucassen PJ. Chronic stress:implications for neuronal morphology, function and neurogenesis. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2007;28:72-96
57. Mesches MH, Fleshner M, Heman KL, Rose GM, Diamond DM. Exposing rats to a predator blocks primed burst potentiation in the hippocampus in vitro. J Neurosci. 1999;19:RC18.
58. Di S, Malcher-Lopes R, Halmos KC, Tasker JG. Nongenomic glucocorticoid inhibition via endocannabinoid release in the hypothalamus: a fast feedback mechanism. J Neurosci. 2003;23:4850-7.
59. Joels M. Functional actions of corticosteroids in the hippocampus. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;583:312-21
60. Malcher-Lopes R, Di S, Marcheselli VS, Weng FJ, Stuart CT, Bazan NG, et al. Opposing crosstalk between leptin and glucocorticoids rapidly modulates synaptic excitation via endocannabinoid release. J Neurosci. 2006;26:6643-50.
61. Ikegaya Y, Saito H, Abe K. Attenuated hippocampal long-term potentiation in basolateral amygdala-lesioned rats. Brain Res. 1994;656:157-64.
62. Ikegaya Y, Saito H, Abe K. Amygdala Nmethyl-D-aspartate receptors participate in the induction of long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus in vivo. Neurosci Lett. 1995;192:193-6.
63. Ikegaya Y, Saito H, Abe K. The basomedial and basolateral amygdaloid nuclei contribute to the induction of long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus in vivo. Eur J Neurosci. 1996;8:1833-9.
64. Kim JJ, Koo JW, Lee HJ, Han JS. Amygdalar inactivation blocks stress-induced impairments in hippocampal long-term potentiation and spatial memory. J Neurosci. 2005;25:1532-9.
65. Pare D. Role of the basolateral amygdala in memory consolidation. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;985:273-93.
66. Vouimba RM, Yaniv D, Richter-Levin G. Glucocorticoid receptors and beta-adrenoceptors in basolateral amygdala modulate synaptic plasticity in hippocampal dentate gyrus, but not in area CA1. Neuropharmacology. 2007;52:244-52.
67. Huang YY, Kandel ER. Modulation of both the early and the late phase of mossy fiber LTP by the activation of beta-adrenergic receptors. Neuron. 1996;16(3):611-7.
68. Quirarte GL, Roozendaal B, McGaugh JL. Glucocorticoid enhancement of memory storage involves noradrenergic activation in the basolateral amygdala. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1997;94:14048-53.
69. Ferry B, McGaugh JL. Clenbuterol administration into the basolateral amygdala post-training enhances retention in an inhibitory avoidance task. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 1999;72:8-12.
70. LeDoux JE. Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2000;23:155-84.
71. Blank T, Nijholt I, Spiess J. Molecular determinants mediating effects of acute stress on hippocampus-dependent synaptic plasticity and learning. Mol Neurobiol. 2004;29:131-8.
72. Woodson JC, Macintosh D, Fleshner M, Diamond DM. Emotion Induced amnesia in rats:working memory-specific impairment, corticosterone-memory correlation, and fear versus arousal effects on memory. Learn Mem. 2003;10:326-36.
73. Herman JP, Ostrander MM, Mueller NK, Figueiredo H. Limbic system mechanisms of stress regulation: hypothalamo pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1148:64-73.
74. Herman JP, Flak J, Jankord R. Chronic stress plasticity in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Prog Brain Res. 2008;170:353-64.
75. Verkuyl JM, Hemby SE, Joels M. Chronic stress attenuates GABAergic inhibition and alters gene expression of parvocellular neurons in rat hypothalamus. Eur J Neurosci. 2004;20:1665-73.
76. Cullinan WE, Wolfe TJ. Chronic stress regulates levels of mRNA transcripts encoding beta subunits of the GABA(A) receptor in the rat stress axis. Brain Res. 2000;887:118-24.
77. Karst H, Nair S, Velzing E, Rumpff-van Essen L, Slagter E, Shinnick-Gallagher P, et al. Glucocorticoids alter calcium conductances and calcium channel subunit expression in basolateral amygdala neurons. Eur J Neurosci. 2002;16:1083-9.
78. Cook SC, Wellman CL. Chronic stress alters dendritic morphology in rat medial prefrontal cortex. J Neurobiol. 2004;60:236-48.
79. Vouimba RM, Yaniv D, Diamond D, Richter-Levin G. Effects of inescapable stress on LTP in the amygdala versus the dentate gyrus of freely behaving rats. Eur J Neurosci. 2004;19:1887-94.
80. Vyas A, Bernal S, Chattarji S. Effects of chronic stress on dendritic arborization in the central and extended amygdala. Brain Res. 2003;965:290-4.
81. Kole MH, Swan L, Fuchs E. The antidepressant tianeptine persistently modulates glutamate receptor currents of the hippocampal CA3 commissural associational synapse in chronically stressed rats. Eur J Neurosci. 2002;16:807-16.
82. Sousa N, Lukoyanov NV, Madeira MD, Almeida OF, Paula-Barbosa MM. Reorganization of the morphology of hippocampal neurites and synapses after stress-induced damage correlates with behavioral improvement. Neuroscience. 2000;97:253-66.
83. Yehuda R. Post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:108-14.
84. Lindauer RJ, Olff M, van Meijel EP, Carlier IV, Gersons BP. Cortisol, learning, memory, and attention in relation to smaller hippocampal volume in police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59:171-7.
85. Lupien SJ, de Leon M, de Santi S, Convit A, Tarshish C, Nair NP, et al. Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nat Neurosci. 1998;1:69-73.
86. Karst H, Joels M. Effect of chronic stress on synaptic currents in rat hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons. J Neurophysiol. 2003;89:625-33.
87. Gao Y, Bezchlibnyk YB, Sun X, Wang JF, McEwen BS, Young LT. Effects of restraint stress on the expression of proteins involved in synaptic vesicle exocytosis in the hippocampus. Neuroscience. 2006;141:1139-48.
88. Stewart MG, Davies HA, Sandi C, Kraev IV, Rogachevsky VV, Peddie CJ, et al. Stress suppresses and learning induces plasticity in CA3 of rat hippocampus: a three-dimensional ultrastructural study of thorny excrescences and their postsynaptic densities. Neuroscience. 2005;131:43-54.
89. Conrad CD. What is the functional significance of chronic stress-induced CA3 dendritic retraction within the hippocampus? Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev. 2006;5:41-60.
90. Magarinos AM, McEwen BS. Stressinduced atrophy of apical dendrites of hippocampal CA3c neurons:involvement of glucocorticoid secretion and excitatory amino acid receptors. Neuroscience. 1995;69:89-98.
91. Herbert J, Goodyer IM, Grossman AB, Hastings MH, de Kloet ER, Lightman SL, et al. Do corticosteroids damage the brain? J Neuroendocrinol. 2006;18:393-411.
92. Broadbent NJ, Squire LR, Clark RE. Spatial memory, recognition memory, and the hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101:14515-20.
93. Shrager Y, Bayley PJ, Bontempi B, Hopkins RO, Squire LR. Spatial memory and the human hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:2961-2966.
94. Pawlak R, Rao BS, Melchor JP, Chattarji S, McEwen B, Strickland S. Tissue plasminogen activator and plasminogen mediate stress-induced decline of neuronal and cognitive functions in the mouse hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005;102:18201-6.
95. van Riel E, Meijer OC, Steenbergen PJ, Joels M. Chronic unpredictable stress causes attenuation of serotonin responses in cornu ammonis 1 pyramidal neurons. Neuroscience. 2003;120:649-58.
96. Bodnoff SR, Humphreys AG, Lehman JC, Diamond DM, Rose GM, Meaney MJ. Enduring effects of chronic corticosterone treatment on spatial learning, synaptic plasticity, and hippocampal neuropathology in young and mid-aged rats. J Neurosci. 1995;15:61-9.
97. Lindauer RJ, Vlieger EJ, Jalink M, Olff M, Carlier IV, Majoie CB, et al. Smaller hippocampal volume in Dutch police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;56:356-63.
98. Pavlides C, Nivon LG, McEwen BS. Effects of chronic stress on hippocampal long-term potentiation. Hippocampus. 2002;12:245-57.
99. Gould E, Tanapat P, Hastings NB, Shors TJ. Neurogenesis in adulthood:a possible role in learning. Trends Cogn Sci. 1999;3:186-92.
100. Karst H, Joels M. Brief RU 38486 treatment normalizes the effects of chronic stress on calcium currents in rat hippocampal CA1 neurons. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32:1830-9.
101. Kerr DS, Campbell LW, Thibault O, Landfield PW. Hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor activation enhances voltage dependent Ca2+ conductances: relevance to brain aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992;89:8527-31.
102. Li S, Wang C, Wang W, Dong H, Hou P, Tang Y. Chronic mild stress impairs cognition in mice:from brain homeostasis to behavior. Life Sci. 2008;82:934-42.
103. Herman JP, Cullinan WE, Morano MI, Akil H, Watson SJ. Contribution of the ventral subiculum to inhibitory regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. J Neuroendocrinol. 1995;7:475-82.
104. Furay AR, Bruestle AE, Herman JP. The role of the forebrain glucocorticoid receptor in acute and chronic stress. Endocrinology. 2008;149:5482-90.
105. Netherton C, Goodyer I, Tamplin A, Herbert J. Salivary cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone in relation to puberty and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2004;29:125-40.
106. Touitou Y, Sulon J, Bogdan A, Touitou C, Reinberg A, Beck H, et al. Adrenal circadian system in young and elderly human subjects:a comparative study. J Endocrinol. 1982;93:201-10.
107. Halligan SL, Herbert J, Goodyer IM, Murray L. Exposure to postnatal depression predicts elevated cortisol in adolescent offspring. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;55:376-81.
108. Lupien SJ, King S, Meaney MJ, McEwen BS. Child’s stress hormone levels correlate with mother’s socioeconomic status and depressive state. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:976-80.
109. McCormick JA, Lyons V, Jacobson MD, Noble J, Diorio J, Nyirenda M, et al. 5’-heterogeneity of glucocorticoid receptor messenger RNA is tissue specific:differential regulation of variant transcripts by early-life events. Mol Endocrinol. 2000;14:506-17.
110. Yehuda R, Engel SM, Brand SR, Seckl J, Marcus SM, Berkowitz GS. Transgenerational effects of posttraumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:4115-8.
111. Rodríguez-Fernández JM, García-Acero M. El papel del receptor de glucocorticoide en el estrés temprano. Universitas Médica. 2010;5:385-91.
112. Champagne DL, Bagot RC, van Hasselt F, Ramakers G, Meaney MJ, de Kloet ER, et al. Maternal care and hippocampal plasticity:evidence for experience-dependent structural plasticity, altered synaptic functioning, and differential responsiveness to glucocorticoids and stress. J Neurosci. 2008;28:6037-45.
113. Conrad CD, MacMillan DD, 2nd, Tsekhanov S, Wright RL, Baran SE, Fuchs RA. Influence of chronic corticosterone and glucocorticoid receptor antagonism in the amygdala on fear conditioning. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2004;81:185-99.
114. de Kloet ER. Stress:a neurobiological perspective. Tijdschr Psychiatr. 2009;51:541-50.
115. Liberzon I, Taylor SF, Amdur R, Jung TD, Chamberlain KR, Minoshima S, et al. Brain activation in PTSD in response to trauma-related stimuli. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:817-26.
116. Semple WE, Goyer PF, McCormick R, Donovan B, Muzic RF, Jr., Rugle L, et al. Higher brain blood flow at amygdala and lower frontal cortex blood flow in PTSD patients with comorbid cocaine and alcohol abuse compared with normals. Psychiatry. 2000;63:65-74.
117. Wang Z, Neylan TC, Mueller SG, Lenoci M, Truran D, Marmar CR, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of hippocampal subfields in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67:296-303.
118. Centonze D, Palmieri MG, Boffa L, Pierantozzi M, Stanzione P, Brusa L, et al. Cortical hyperexcitability in posttraumatic stress disorder secondary to minor accidental head trauma:a neurophysiologic study. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2005;30:127-32.
119. Pitman RK, Shin LM, Rauch SL. Investigating the pathogenesis of posttraumatic stress disorder with neuroimaging. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62 Suppl 17:47-54.
120. Koenigs M, Grafman J. Posttraumatic stress disorder:the role of medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Neuroscientist. 2009;15:540-8.
121. Heim C, Newport DJ, Heit S, GrahamYP, Wilcox M, Bonsall R, et al. Pituitaryadrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. JAMA. 2000;284:592-7.
Cómo citar
Rodríguez-Fernández, J. M., García-Acero, M., & Franco, P. (2013). Neurobiología del estrés agudo y crónico: su efecto en el eje hipotálamohipófisis- adrenal y la memoria. Universitas Medica, 54(4), 472–494. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.umed54-4.neac
Sección
Artículos de revisión